Green Car Congress

Land Rover Concept Showcases Hybrid System and Other Technologies for 30% Reduction in Fuel Consumption

The Land_e technology concept

Ford’s Land Rover is showcasing a range of new technologies including a new mild hybrid drive—collectively known as the e-Terrain System—that, as an integrated system, can reduce both fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions by up to 30%.

Packaged into the Land_e concept vehicle, the e_Terrain technologies are targeting sub-150 g/km CO₂ figures—equivalent to a combined fuel economy figure of about 5.65 l/100km (41.6 mpg US) in a vehicle similar in size to the current Freelander.

Such CO₂ emissions levels are comparable with a typical gasoline B segment or diesel C segment car. Most of the technologies will be available on Land Rover production models starting in the next few years, according to the company.

(The current gasoline-fueled Land Rover models in the US offer fuel economies of between 15 and 16 mpg US (combined). More than 90% of all Land Rover vehicles currently sold in Europe, however, are diesel-powered, with corresponding reductions in fuel consumption and emissions.)

The e-Terrain technologies are practical, feasible, real-world solutions. In every case, they preserve—and in most cases improve—our breadth of capability. We are not prepared to dilute the essence of Land Rover. But we are committed to improving fuel economy and reducing CO₂ emissions.

—Matthew Taylor, managing director of Land Rove

The technologies that Land_e showcases are:

• A mild hybrid function with the Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive and ISG Integrated Starter-Generator
• Innovative Propshaft with Seamless Re-connect
• Terrain Response e-Mode
• Biodiesel capability
• ITP Intelligent Thermal Program
• EPAS Electric Power-Assisted Steering
• IMES Intelligent Management of Electrical Systems

The Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive is used in conjunction with the ISG Integrated Starter-Generator system to deliver mild hybrid function to improve both off-road ability and decrease urban emissions.

Off-road, the Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive system can provide additional torque as required. Because electric power can offer maximum torque from standstill, it is most effective from virtually zero mph/kph. This offers better low-speed control and enhanced pull-away in difficult situations, such as on slippery surfaces or when towing.

On-road, the additional low-speed torque input from the Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive allows electric-powered “traffic creep” and low-speed acceleration up to 20 mph (32 km/h) without restarting the engine, benefiting fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions.

When quicker acceleration is required, the engine can be restarted immediately, so both the conventional engine and the Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive system supply power from rest. In this case, the electric torque boost provided by the Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive significantly improves acceleration without adversely affecting either fuel consumption or CO₂ emissions.

The Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive system draws stored energy from a lithium-ion battery pack it recharges by regenerative braking.

On its own, the ISG Integrated Starter-Generator is a micro-hybrid system that allows the engine to be stopped automatically whenever the vehicle stops, as in traffic, and under the control of the ECU it restarts the engine quickly and smoothly when required. The engine does not idle unnecessarily when the vehicle is stationary, to the further benefit of both fuel economy and CO₂ emissions.

Together the ISG and Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive offer the potential of a 20% reduction in CO2 emissions.

The Propshaft with Seamless Re-connect allows the Propshaft and rear drive components to come to rest, avoiding unnecessary rotational losses, when the drive to the rear wheels is automatically disconnected when conditions allow, such as cruising on a dry surface.

When rear drive is required, the system reconnects the rear axle automatically and virtually instantaneously. By ensuring that front and rear wheel speeds are correctly matched, and with the additional control of the Integrated Electric Rear Axle drive, the drive layout virtually eliminates wheel slippage, which in turn reduces soft-surface damage—for instance on grass.

The ISG Integrated Starter-Generator, Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive and the Seamless Re-connect propshaft are fully compatible with all Land Rover engine and transmission options, and could be adapted for any model and any market.

The Land_e introduces a sixth Terrain Response mode—e-Mode—to the other five modes available on some Land Rover products: General Driving; Sand; Mud and Ruts; Grass, Gravel and Snow; and Rock Crawl.

The e-Mode is shown for the first time and focuses principally on on-road use. This configures all the vehicle’s e-terrain systems for optimized fuel economy. It always retains instantaneous access to Land Rover’s four-wheel drive capability but adopts soft throttle responses, and delivers early shift points.

In the Land_e, the other five Terrain Modes all use combinations of normal engine and Integrated Electric Rear Axle Drive. In all off-road modes, the engine is never shut down, even if the vehicle is stationary.

The ITP Intelligent Thermal Program controls engine parameters including exhaust heat management and cooling system function. Through heat exchangers, the EHRS (Exhaust Heat Recovery System) utilizes what is normally wasted heat from the exhaust system to promote faster engine and gearbox warm-up from cold, with several advantages.

In a production application, ITP could also control Active Aero Vanes, which would allow specific sections of the radiator aperture to be closed under certain operating conditions. That would reduce high-drag airflow through the radiator core and engine bay when cooling air is not needed—for instance at low ambient temperatures and when running in low-load conditions.

The vanes would also be closed during engine warm-up, again to ensure that the engine reaches optimum operating temperature as quickly as possible. Faster engine and catalyst warm-up significantly reduces emissions in the first minutes after a cold start, and by bringing engine and gearbox oils up to operating temperature more quickly, it reduces mechanical frictional losses.

An electronically controlled thermostat and cooling circuit give far more accurate control of coolant temperature than a conventional system, allowing the engine to run closer to its optimum temperature. The system also incorporates an electric water pump, which, unlike the conventional belt-driven water pump, is driven only on demand, and at variable speeds, avoiding inefficient and unnecessary overspeed running. Mechanical energy savings, optimum temperature control and fast warm-up from start offer the potential for additional CO₂ emissions benefits.

Significant benefits are also possible with the use of electric power steering technology, EPAS (Electric Power Assisted Steering). EPAS completely eliminates the pumped hydraulic assistance of a conventional system and powers the steering rack directly, by electric servo motor.

That eliminates pumping power losses, including the significant losses when the pump is being driven at high speed even though assistance is not required, again offering a noticeable CO2 benefit compared to a belt-driven hydraulic system. The higher-voltage electrical supply made possible by ISG also allows the possibility of more powerful assistance for more demanding use.

All electrical system functions are controlled by IMES (Intelligent Management of Electrical Systems), with further efficiency gains. It incorporates a closed-loop system that monitors battery charge, vehicle electrical system demands, and generator speed and load. It uses the monitored data to ensure that the whole electrical system operates in the most efficient way.

It charges the battery only when it needs it, avoiding the over-charging associated with non-intelligent systems, and unless it is absolutely necessary, it avoids charging the battery when it is in low-acceptance states—such as cold ambient conditions, below around 10º C. It also regulates high electrical loads until the alternator is operating at high efficiency, which gives a further reduction in CO₂ emissions.

Mitsubishi Introduces the Concept-EZ MIEV

Concept-EZ MIEV

Mitsubishi Motors introduced the Concept-EZ MIEV 4WD mono-box concept car at the 76th Geneva International Motor Show that began today.

The Concept-EZ MIEV (Mitsubishi In-wheel motor Electric Vehicle) showcases another application of the company’s MIEV concept for next-generation electric vehicles using in-wheel motors and a high energy-density lithium-ion battery system as core technologies.

The four 20 kW motors deliver a combined maximum output of 80 kW (107 hp) and combined torque of 1,600 Nm. The use of the in-wheel motor also allows for a “wheel-at-a-corner” layout for high-stability road-hugging.

The lithium-ion battery system, with output of 24 kW and weighing 150 kg, is mounted under the floor. Taking advantage of the absence of a centerline powertrain that distinguishes the MIEV concept, the Concept-EZ MIEV provides three seating arrangements:

• Lounge mode: A conference room-like space with the seats arranged in a circle.

• Transport mode: Luggage space with the rear seats stowed under the floor.

• Driving mode: Appropriate for normal driving conditions, spacious and comfortable seating for five adults.

The Concept-EZ accelerates from 0–100 km/h in 11 seconds, and has a cruising range of 120 km (75 miles) with a maximum speed of 150 km/h (93 mph).

In January, Mitsubishi introduced the Concept-CT MIEV series/parallel hybrid at the North American International Auto Show, an electric-dominant gasoline-electric series/parallel hybrid concept (earlier post).

The Concept-EZ is the fourth MIEV vehicle Mitsubishi has developed, starting first with the Colt EV in the spring of 2005, followed by the Lancer Evolution and then the Concept-CT.

Toyota Announces More Details and Pricing for Lexus GS 450h Hybrid

Lexus GS 450h

Toyota will put the 2007 Lexus GS 450h (earlier post), the world’s first luxury performance hybrid sedan, on sale in early May with a base price of $54,900.

The GS 450h uses a completely new powertrain that combines a 3.5-liter V6 engine with a new compact, high-output, permanent magnet electric motor that drives the rear wheels. The transmission utilizes an advanced two-stage motor torque multiplication device for the Electronic Continuously Variable Transmission (ECVT) motor, delivering responsive and seamless acceleration with no power loss.

The 3,456cc V6 engine develops 296 hp (218 kW) and 368 Nm of torque. Combined with a 200 hp (147 kW) permanent magnet motor generating 275 Nm of torque, the combined powertrain delivers output of 339 hp (253 kW)—essentially the performance of a modern V8 engine. The GS 450h accelerates from zero-to-60 miles per hour in approximately 5.2 seconds.

The all-aluminium engine combines Toyota’s D-4S dual port- and direct-injection system with high strength chain drive, roller rockers, and high torsional stiffness connecting rods.

Double slit, fan-shaped spray injectors optimize fuel/air mixture formation for maximum combustion efficiency, generating higher rpm and power output while reducing emissions. Coupled with variable timing for both intake and exhaust valves (VVT-i), the new D-4S system’s combination of direct and port injection increases engine efficiency throughout the power band.

Direct injection improves full-power engine performance, whilst both low-power engine fuel economy and emissions reduction are enhanced through the coalition of direct- and port-injection systems.

In addition to the engine and motor, the hybrid drive system also includes a 288V NiMH battery pack, a new, compact power control unit no larger than an auxiliary 12V battery, and a power split device which, via planetary reduction gears, combines and re-allocates power from the engine, electric motor and generator according to operational requirements.

The electric motor, generator, power split planetary gear mechanism and motor-speed reduction gearing are all housed in a lightweight, compact transmission casing comparable in size to that of a conventional gearbox.

Unique to the GS 450h, the new transmission system now incorporates two-stage motor speed reduction gearing. A hydraulic control unit incorporated within the continuously variable automatic transmission automatically switches the gearing between low and high motor reduction ratio settings.

The twin-stage gearing generates maximum low-gear torque for significantly enhanced acceleration, as well as extended high-gear performance for quiet, high speed cruising with improved fuel efficiency.

Via a center console-mounted switch, the new transmission offers a choice of three power settings:

• Normal, for the optimum balance of power and traction;

• Power, for maximum acceleration; and

• Snow, for excellent traction control under the most slippery road conditions.

With a manufacture-estimated combined fuel rating of 28 mpg, the GS 450h delivers an estimated 33% better fuel efficiency than its V8 competitors. Toyota expects a Super Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV)/Tier 2-BIN 3 emissions rating for the luxury hybrid.

The car also uses Electronic Power Steering (EPS) with Variable Gear Ratio Steering (VGRS) and an electrically powered air conditioner.

Toyota will introduce the hybrid version of its flagship LS460 sedan at the New York auto show in April. (Earlier post.)

Lexus GS 450h Preliminary Specifications
	2007 GS 450h	2006 GS 430
Engine	3.5-liter V6	4.3-liter V8
Engine Output	218 kW (296 hp)	224 kW (300 hp)
Motor Output	147 kW (200 hp)	–
System Output (peak)	253 kW (339 hp)	224 kW (300 hp)
0–60 mph	5.2 sec.	5.7 sec.
Fuel Economy (combined mpg US)	28	21
Emissions	SULEV	ULEV
CO2	186 g/km	269 g/km

Dodge Introduces Hornet Subcompact Concept to Europe

Dodge Hornet

At the Geneva show, the Chrysler group is introducing the Dodge Hornet, a new subcompact B-segment concept vehicle for the European and international markets.

The Hornet uses a 1.6-liter 16-valve OHC supercharged four-cylinder engine putting out 127 kW (170 hp) and 224 Nm of torque @4,000 rpm. A raised plateau on the hood features a recessed scoop on the driver’s side to funnel air to the engine air box.

In the front, an exposed engine intercooler is flanked by front brake air ducts and fog lamps.

Outfitted with a six-speed manual transmission, the Hornet offers estimated 0–60 mph acceleration of 6.7 seconds, with a top speed of 130 mph (209 km/h).

In the B Segment, the Hornet would compete with cars like the Toyota Yaris, Chevrolet Aveo or Fiat Grand Punto. But while the Hornet is B segment in length, it is almost as wide as a C segment vehicle, giving the car a solid stance.

International Truck Evaluating Several Enova Hybrid Drive Applications

One application of the versatile International 4200-series medium-duty truck.

Enova Systems announced today that it is working with and evaluating hybrid drive systems for International Truck and Engine Corporation (International). Enova confirmed it delivered a post-transmission 120 kW parallel hybrid-electric drive application in an International 4200-series medium-duty truck to the company in November 2005.

The delivery of the truck is in addition to a prototype hybrid drive school bus delivered to IC Corp in January 2006. (Earlier post.) Both the 4200 series truck and the School Bus are currently being evaluated by International at their Fort Wayne Technical Center.

The performance of the 4200 series International Truck, as delivered by Enova, has yielded an average reduction in fuel consumption of more than 31% and a corresponding increase in fuel economy (miles per gallon) in excess of 48%.

The 4200 series supports a standard Gross Vehicle Weight of 21,500 lbs up to a maximum of 35,000 lbs. The conventional models feature the 6-liter VT 365 V8 diesel engine with ratings from 175 to 230 hp and 624 to 841 Nm of torque.

International is partnering with Eaton Corporation on a number of other hybrid applications, including diesel-electric hybrid parcel delivery trucks for FedEx and UPS, a prototype diesel-hydraulic hybrid parcel delivery truck (also for UPS), and a diesel-electric hybrid utility trouble truck.

International Truck and Engine is the US’ largest medium-duty truck manufacturer. It currently supports approximately 40% of the medium truck build and 60% of the school bus build in North America.

VW Introduces 60-MPG Diesel Polo Bluemotion at Geneva Show

Polo Bluemotion

In Geneva, Volkswagen is presenting its first series production vehicle under the new BlueMotion banner: the Polo BlueMotion.

The Polo Bluemotion uses a modified version of the 3-cylinder 1.4-liter TDI diesel engine in the conventional Polo to produce the same power output—59 kW (79 hp)—and torque—195 Nm—but with a reduction in fuel consumption of 11% (0.5 liters/100km) to 3.9 liters/100km (60 mpg US).

Emissions of CO₂ drop by 13% from 119 g/km to 103 g/km.

Volkswagen achieved the reduced consumption and emission values by using longer gear ratios (gears three to five have 12% to 24% longer ratios); by aerodynamic design of front and rear spoilers; and by other modifications inside the engine. The Volkswagen vehicle has a manual five-speed gearbox.

VW assembles the Polo BlueMotion in Pamplona in Spain. The car will be launched in Switzerland, the Netherlands, Austria and Germany in the Summer of 2006.

This Polo—the “spiritual successor to the Lupo 3L TDI” according to VW UK—marks the start of Volkswagen’s BlueMotion campaign. VW will develop BlueMotion into a seal of approval which will be awarded to the most fuel-efficient vehicles in a model range.

Mayor of London Plans for 70 New Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles by 2010

A Mercedes-Benz Citaro fuel-cell bus in London Bus livery.

The Mayor of London plans to introduce 70 new hydrogen vehicles to London by 2010 and is asking the transport industry to get ready to deliver the necessary vehicles and refueling technology.

Currently there are three hydrogen fuel-cell buses in trials in London (Mercedes-Benz Citaro buses) as part of the larger CUTE (Clean Urban Transport for Europe) project—the first volume production test for fuel-cell buses. (Earlier post.)

The CUTE fleet has logged more than 1 million kilometers in service. The Future of Clean Transportation conference, scheduled for 10 and 11 May 2006 in Hamburg, will disseminate CUTE results and learnings from various stakeholder perspectives.

The Mayor is committed to rolling out more hydrogen-fueled vehicles in the capital as part of the London Hydrogen Partnership’s London Hydrogen Transport Programme to make London a leader in clean technologies.

In support of this goal, Transport for London, the agency responsible for the city’s transport systems, has begun the procurement process for 10 new hydrogen-fueled buses. The Mayor is working with the Metropolitan Police Authority and London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority, as well as Transport for London, to deliver and run the other sixty hydrogen vehicles.

Hydrogen fuel cells could offer a real alternative to diesel in the future. The high cost of the vehicles is the major barrier at the moment but the greater the demand for vehicles, the more the costs will come down. I would call on the manufacturers to gear up for this change, as hydrogen vehicles are a real and viable option for London.

—Mayor of London Ken Livingstone

The hydrogen fuel cell bus trial has been extended until the end of this year and following a successful planning application process the hydrogen refueling station at Hornchurch will continue to provide service.

The London Hydrogen Partnership is working towards a hydrogen economy for London. It is chaired by the Deputy Mayor of London, and its members include: Air Products, Association of London Government, Baxi Group, BMW, BOC, BP, Carbon Trust, DTI, Energy Saving Trust, Greater London Authority, Health and Safety Executive, Imperial College, Intelligent Energy, Johnson Matthey, London Climate Change Agency, London Development Agency, London First, Rolls-Royce, Thames Water and Transport for London.

Transport for London recently introduced into service six Wrightbus Electrocity series diesel-hybrid buses on an experimental basis. (Earlier post.)

Resources:

• The Fuel Cell Bus Club

• London Hydrogen Parternship

Team Sets Sights on Solar Car Distance Record

Preliminary route map for the Power of One distance run.

A multinational team (primarily Canadian and Brazilian) is targeting a world distance record in a solar-powered electric vehicle.

The Power of One (xof1) project is planning a 22,900-kilometer (14,230-mile) run, mainly through Canada. The tour would start in Toronto, then head east to St.John’s (Atlantic ocean), west to Victoria (Pacific Ocean), north to Inuvik (Arctic ocean) and back again.

The xof1 car.

The car, designed and built by the xof1 team, uses 853 Shell solar cells, each 6.44mm x 12.5mm (2.5" x 4.9"). The cells operate at about 15% efficiency and the array generates about 900 watts, according to the xof1 team.

The drive system uses a 96V brushless DC motor and controller from New Generation Corporation as well as a 3.8 kWh lithium-ion battery system from Kokam. Total net weight of the cells is about 30 kg (66 lbs).

The battery is recharged both by the array and via regenerative braking. The motor takes energy from the battery at all times, although at times the current flow will result in a net recharge for the battery rather than a net discharge (wWhen going down a hill, for example, or at low speeds). The xof1 team developed its own Battery Monitoring System (BMS).

Underneath the cover of the solar car. Click to enlarge.

The car has an estimated wight of 300 kg (661 lbs)—including driver—and a projected top speed of 140 km/h (87 mph).

The project, conceived of and led by Marcelo da Luz, has faced as many problems from red tape as technology challenges. The government of Ontario and Newfoundland declined to issue the temporary permits that would allow the solar car on public roads.

A pedestrian, a cyclist, horse and buggies, farm equipment, etc. can make use of secondary roads where the speed limit is 80kmh but a solar car that can drive at 120kmh and would be escorted by vehicles with flashing lights is not allowed.

—Marcelo da Luz

The team, however, found a workaround loophole, and plans the run the 3rd week in May.

Resources:

• Power of One project website

GM Introduces 400hp, E100 BioPower Concept Saab

The front-opening canopy on the Saab Aero X E100 concept

GM is unveiling the Saab Aero X two-seater sports coupé concept at the Geneva motor show. Taking design cues from Saab’s aviation heritage, the Aero X has no door or windshield pillars; the car adopts a cockpit canopy instead.

The Aero X features a new 400 hp (298 kW), twin-turbo, BioPower V6 engine that is fueled entirely by ethanol (E100), thereby offering net zero tank-to-wheel CO₂ emissions.

With carbon fiber bodywork, electronically-controlled suspension and all-wheel drive, the Saab Aero X is projected to accelerate from zero to 100 kph in just 4.9 seconds with a top (limited) speed of 250 kph (155 mph).

Although optimized for E100, the engine management system will make adjustments for any gasoline-ethanol blend.

For optimum handling, the powertrain is mounted entirely behind the front axle line, giving the Aero X a near perfect 50/50 weight distribution. All-wheel-drive, with a variable torque split between the front and rear axles, provides excellent traction and Saab Active Chassis, with continuously variable damping, gives excellent real-life driving safety and control.

The 2.8-liter V6 E100 BioPower engine delivers 400 hp maximum power at 5,000 rpm and torque of 500 Nm between 2,000 and 5,000 rpm.

Pure ethanol (E100) fuel has a higher octane rating of 106 RON compared to gasoline’s 95 RON. Using a 12:1 compression ratio and twin turbochargers running at 1.0 bar boost, the Aero X BioPower engine delivers a hefty 143hp per liter displacement. Turbocharging with E100 fuel allows the use of a higher compression ratio—giving more engine power—than is possible with gasoline because of the risk of harmful knocking (pre-detonation).

The all-aluminum, 24-valve, four-cam engine is a higher-performance version of the current engine in the Saab 9-3 range. For the Aero X, the engine is longitudinally installed and features a Spark Ignited Direct Injection system (SIDI) for optimum combustion; variable inlet and exhaust cam phasing for improved breathing, and dry-sump lubrication for a lower chassis installation and reduced oil pumping losses. Both turbochargers have variable geometry turbine (VGT) wheels to give a quick low-end response.

More durable valves and valve seats are fitted, together with ethanol-compatible materials in the fuel system, including the tank, pump, lines and connectors. The addition of the SIDI system ensures the same cold starting performance as a normal gasoline engine.

The 32-bit engine management system simultaneously controls the ignition timing, fuel injection, turbo boost pressure, air mass measurement and the throttle setting. For minimized exhaust emissions, the two close-coupled catalysts are equipped with electronically controlled, secondary air injection, which gives extremely quick light-off following cold starts.

Turbocharging and bioethanol make excellent partners. In developing this BioPower V6 engine we have been able to take the next step by using E100 fuel, pure 100% bioethanol. That means there are zero fossil CO₂ emissions because we are not using any gasoline at all.

—Kjell ac Bergström, Executive Director of Saab Automobile Powertrain AB

The 2.8-liter engine is matched to a seven-speed automated manual transmission using a wet double clutch system to allow fast, full throttle, sequential gear changes via the steering wheel paddles. Power is transmitted to all four wheels through a multi-plate clutch, allowing an infinitely variable front/rear torque split.

Suspension is by double wishbones at the front and an independent multi-link layout at the rear. Continuously adjustable damping (Saab Active Chassis) is adopted for enhanced body control, ride comfort and driving safety.

Saab Active Chassis involves processing signals from a number of on-board sensors which measure the vehicle’s vertical, lateral and body-in-roll movements. These inputs are fed into a central control unit, which monitors the behavior of each wheel as often as 100 times per second. It can then calculate and make small adjustments to the valving of each relevant damper as required in just 10-30 milliseconds. Opening the valve increases oil flow to allow softer damping, while closing the valve produces firmer damping. A range of pre-settings can be selected by the driver.

Toyota and Hino to Run Fuel-Cell Hybrid Bus Trial Near Chubu Airport

FHCV fuel-cell bus. Click to enlarge to see the happy molecules decorating the bus.

Toyota and Hino (the heavy-duty vehicle subsidiary of Toyota) will put a FHCV fuel-cell hybrid bus into limited service for two weeks on a route near the Chubu Centrair International Airport near Nagoya, Japan.

Chitanoriai Company will use the FCHV-Bus to link Nagoya Railroad’s Tokoname Station, located close to the airport on a man-made island, and Chita Handa Station. The bus will make a round trip to link the two stations once a day.

The project is an element of a fuel-cell vehicle commercialization program promoted by Japan’s transport ministry.

Toyota and Hino will collect in-use data concerning the durability and fuel economy of fuel-cell vehicles. The bus to be leased to Chitanoriai is one of the FCHV-Buses used last year to transport visitors between pavilions at the 2005 World Exposition. (Earlier post.)

The companies are planning to expand the service area covered by fuel-cell buses by linking the airport with other nearby railway stations and by transporting airport users between airport facilities.

The layout of the fuel-cell bus. Click to enlarge.

The FCHV bus uses twin fuel cell stacks and traction motors combined with a version of Toyota’s THS-II hybrid drive and management systems (used in the Prius).

Toyota has had this type of bus in very limited service since 2002 on select routes in Tokyo in addition to the service at the World Expo.

Toyota-Hino FCHV-BUS2
Fuel Cell	Name	Toyota FC Stack
	Type	PEM
	Output (kW)	90 x 2
Motor	Type	Permanent magnet
	Maximum Output (kW / HP)	80 / 107 x 2
	Maximum torque (Nm / lb-ft)	260 / 192  x 2
Fuel	Storage	High-pressure tank
	Maximum pressure (psi)	5,000
Battery	Type	NiMH
Performance	Max range (km / miles)	250 / 155
	Maximum Speed (km/h / mph)	80 / 50

NYC Hybrid Buses Improve Fuel Economy 45% Over Diesel, 100% over CNG

The series-hybrid buses offer up to 45% better fuel economy than diesel, and 100% better than CNG.

Orion VII series-hybrid buses operated by New York City Transit (NYCT) on the city’s most severe duty cycles achieved up to 45% better fuel economy than diesel buses and 100% improvement compared to comparable natural gas buses on an energy-equivalent basis, according to the results of a study released by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).

The evaluation is part of a series of evaluations of new propulsion systems in transit technologies performed by the lab. from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). NREL recently concluded an evaluation of the GM-Allison parallel hybrid buses in use in Seattle. (Earlier post.)

The Orion VII series-hybrid buses with the BAE HybriDrive combine a 5.9-liter, 260 hp (194 kW) Cummins ULSD (Ultra Low-Sulfur Diesel) engine with a 120 kW traction generator. The electric traction motor delivers 250 hp (186 kW) and 2,700 lb-ft (3,657 Nm) of low-end torque.

The hybrid fleet proved the most reliable in the study, with 7,000 miles between road calls, compared to 5,000 miles for natural gas and 4,000 miles for diesel. The hybrid propulsion system also performed better than the other propulsion systems, with 10,000 miles between calls, compared to 8,000 miles for CNG and 5,000 miles for diesel.

The evaluation compared Orion VII low floor buses at NYCT with CNG propulsion (Detroit Diesel Corporation Series 50G CNG) and hybrid propulsion (BAE Systems HybriDrive propulsion system) against conventional diesel buses.

The CNG buses’ average fuel economy was 25% lower than the diesel baseline buses—a typical difference in fuel economy for low-average-speed operation for the spark-ignited natural gas engines.

The hybrid buses’ average fuel economy was 45% higher than the diesel baseline buses (ranging from 32% to 52% better than the diesel baseline during the evaluation period). The diesel baseline buses for the hybrid bus evaluation have diesel engines without exhaust gas circulation (EGR). The addition of EGR for emissions control would tend to lower the diesel baseline fuel economy.

The reported results represent eight out of a planned 12-month evaluation of these two groups of buses. An additional evaluation of NYCT’s order of 200 Orion and BAE Systems hybrid buses will be reported separately.

The eight-month evaluation period does not include summer months, which could have reduced the hybrid bus fuel economy advantage from air conditioning loading and the ability to collect regenerative braking energy into the batteries. The summer-month fuel economy information will be provided in the final results report on this evaluation. The hybrid buses had an average fuel economy 100% higher than the CNG buses.

In October 2005, New York City transport services ordered 500 more Orion VII series-hybrid-electric buses from DaimlerChrysler Commercial Buses North America. New York City Transit ordered 216 units, and Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA Bus) 284. (Earlier post.)

The exploration of alternative fuel technologies for urban transit has been driven, up to now, by imperatives for emissions reductions.

EPA Emissions Requirements for Transit Buses
Model Years	CO g/bhp-hr	HC g/bhp-hr	NOx g/bhp-hr	PM g/bhp-hr
1990	15.5	1.3	6.0	0.60
1992–1992	15.5	1.3	5.0	0.25
1993	15.5	1.3	5.0	0.10
1994–1995	15.5	1.3	6.0	0.07
1996–1997	15.5	1.3	6.0	0.05
1998–2003	15.5	1.3	4.0	0.05
2004–2006	15.5	2.4 combined or 2.5 with a limit of 0.5 for NMHC		0.05
2007–2010	15.5	0.14 (NMHC)	0.2	0.01

Diesel hybrid bus propulsion systems offer improved fuel economy during a time of fuel economy penalties for emissions control.

An issue that requires resolution, however, is the EPA’s current lack of recognition of the emissions reduction from a hybrid bus. Under current regulations, the emissions profile of the bus—or other heavy-duty vehicle—is determined by evaluating the diesel as a stand-alone engine. In other words, from an EPA point of view, the emissions profile of a hybrid bus is the same as the emissions profile of a non-hybrid bus using the same engine.

The California Air Resources Board (CARB) has recognized the emissions savings offered by hybrids, and as granted hybrid bus propulsion systems a 25% blanket reduction in emissions that can be used in the state implementation plan for emissions reductions. Currently, EPA does not recognize this benefit.

Resources:

• New York City Transit Hybrid and CNG Transit Buses: Interim Evaluation Results

157 MPG Lightweight Diesel to Debut at Geneva

Loremo LS

Loremo AG, a German company, is introducing the Loremo LS, a 1.5 l/100km (157 mpg US) diesel passenger car, at the upcoming Geneva Motor Show. Loremo had presented the concept for such a 1.5 liter car at the Frankfurt show in 2001.

The Loremo LS ( Low Resistance Mobile Light and Simple) combines lightweight design (450 kg / 992 lb) with a two-cylinder 15 kW (20 hp) turbo-diesel engine to deliver speeds up to 160 km/h (100 mph).

The car is built around a 95kg (209 lb) steel chassis in a patented linear cell structure. Longitudinal supports extend at fender height along the length of the entire vehicle, increasing stability and ensuring that the linear cell structure remains practically undamaged in offset and side crash-tests.

The centrally mounted cross-support on which the roll bars are mounted stiffens the longitudinal beams and houses the engine. Non-load-bearing, self-supporting, thermoplastic body panels mold to the linear cell structure and help the Loremo to achieve its aerodynamic shape.

This material is light weight, weatherproof, scratch-resistant and economical. It also replaces conventional paint with a thin film in the color of the car, during the manufacturing process.

Unconventional entry.

Entry to the car is from the front and from the rear. There are no traditional side doors. The entire hood of the car including the windshield tips forwards, allowing for upright boarding to the interior. The opened front shows the trunk, which also provides additional 600 mm (24 in) of crumple zone. The vertically-opening tailgate provides the entry to the back seats.

The Loremo uses a specially-developed rear differential-link axle combing the advantages of longitudinal- and semi-trailing link axles. With maximum load, the axle is indifferent to toe and camber at full suspension compression. In curves, however, the wheel leans inwards to achieve better lateral traction.

The Loremo accelerates from 0 to 100 km/h (63 mph) in 20 seconds.

The company is planning a more powerful version, the Loremo GT, with a 37 kW (50 hp) 3-cylinder engine. The GT offers fuel consumption of 2.7 l/100km (88 mpg US).

Loremo AG was founded in 2000 by Gerhard Heilmaier, Stefan Ruetz and Uli Sommer.

Loremo Models
	Loremo LS	Loremo GT
Engine	2-cylinder turbodiesel	3-cylinder turbodiesel
Output	15 kW / 20 hp	36 kW / 50 hp
Max. speed	160 km/h (99 mph)	220 km/h (137 mph)
Acceleration	20 sec. (0-100km/h)	9 sec. (0-100km/h)
Transmission	5-gear manual transmission
Drive	midship/rear wheel drive
Fuel Consumption	1.5 l/100 km (157 mpg US)	2.7 l/100 km (87 mpg US)
Fuel range	1,300 km	800 km
Weight	450 kg	470 kg
Drag	Cw=0.20; Cw×A=0.22 m²
Dimensions	384cm x 136cm x 110cm (l x w x h)
Price	< €11,000	< €15.000

Sasol Invests $32M in GTL and CTL Research Reactor

Sasol, the South African energy company and leader in coal-to-liquids (CTL) and gas-to-liquids (GTL) production, is investing R200 million (US$32 million) in the construction of an innovative Fischer-Tropsch design reactor at its research and development facilities in Sasolburg, South Africa.

The reactor will support the engineering design of the next generation of Fischer-Tropsch reactors for Sasol’s gas-to-liquids (GTL) and coal-to-liquids (CTL) technologies. Both CTL and GTL are key drivers of Sasol’s global growth strategy.

The reactor, on which construction recently began, should be ready for commissioning by the end of October 2006, with the first test runs planned for the beginning of 2007.

In partnership with Qatar Petroleum, Sasol is about to commission the world’s first commercial-scale GTL facility in the world outside of South Africa at Ras Laffan in Qatar. The plant, called Oryx GTL, will produce 34,000 barrels per day of liquid fuels from natural gas: 24,000 bpd of diesel, 9,000 bpd of naphtha and 1,000 bpd of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

The Oryx GTL plant is based on the Sasol Slurry Phase Distillate (SPD) process, which is, in turn, based on the Sasol Slurry Phase Fischer-Tropsh process and catalyst, Haldor Topsøe’s Autothermal Reforming and ChevronTexaco’s Isocracking.

Sasol Slurry Phase Distillate (SPD) Process. Click to enlarge.

[The new] research design reactor will assist Sasol in achieving significantly higher productivity in terms of gas throughput and product conversion rates over current generation designs. It will also support our quest to continuously lower the capital cost of the GTL process and improve operational efficiency, while also allowing us to test some novel reactor configurations.

—Sasol CEO Pat Davies

The Fischer-Tropsch design reactor is slurry-phase based and will have a capacity of producing up to 500 barrels of product per day. The reactor test program will be supported by a team of dedicated engineers and scientists from within the existing research and development team.

Sasol is targeting global GTL output of 450,000 bpd (with partners) by 2014.

Johnson Matthey to Build Plant in Russia for Emissions-Control Catalysts

Johnson Matthey has signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the First Deputy Governor of Russia’s Krasnoyarsk Region, and the General Director of the Krastsvetmet Metal Company to secure a brown field site as the first step in a multi-million pound investment to build an autocatalyst manufacturing plant in Russia.

Over the last five years Russia has emerged as a significant player in the global automotive industry, with many international original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) investing in local manufacturing facilities. Johnson Matthey plans to build a plant to manufacture emission control catalysts for a wide range of both diesel- and gasoline-powered vehicles for the local Russian market, which will see emissions legislation requiring the use of catalysts come into force this spring.

Russia, which has lagged far behind European emissions standards, last year approved (Russian Federal Government Decree 609 of October 12 2005) an accelerated implementation plan that would bring the country closer into alignment with international standards over nine years. The plan calls for the mandatory implementation of Euro-2 standards beginning in April of this year; Euro-3 in 2008; Euro-4 in 2010; and Euro-5 in 2014.

The chosen site is located within the secure perimeter of the Krastsvetmet site; however the new factory will be wholly owned and operated by Johnson Matthey. Under the terms of the MOU, the new facility will purchase precious metal salts from Krastsvetmet for use in the manufacture of autocatalysts.

The site has direct on-site access to the Trans Siberian Railway, which will provide daily logistical links to the rest of the Russian Federation. Johnson Matthey already has significant business links with Krastsvetmet and since 2002 has licensed them technologies for the production of precious metal gauzes for the chemical industry.

Since making the first catalysts to control vehicle pollution in 1974, Johnson Matthey has supplied 1 in 3 of all autocatalysts ever made. A global leader in catalytic systems for emissions control, Johnson Matthey ECT has 10 manufacturing sites and 6 technology centers around the world.

Does Ford Have a Better Idea About Sustainability?

Defining Sustainability: Part Three of Eight
[Ed. note: We’re publishing the Ford piece in two installments. This week’s piece provides background context.]

By Jack Rosebro

The cover of Ford’s Sustainability Report

Ford Motor Company is the automaker most closely associated with the acceleration of society’s acceptance of the private automobile. While most automakers cite a long, yet often tenuous commitment to sustainable practices, Ford is also among the few that can reach down into its roots and come up with numerous examples of initiatives that are strikingly similar to some of today’s efforts towards sustainability.

In 1925, Henry Ford, the company’s founder, told the New York Times that “the fuel of the future is going to come from fruit...or from apples, weeds, sawdust...there’s enough alcohol in one year’s yield of an acre of potatoes to drive the machinery necessary to cultivate the fields for a hundred years.” The world’s petroleum industry, of course, went in another direction.

Many of Ford’s early business efforts were directed at reducing costs and exploring ways to combine the transportation and agriculture industries, especially after farmers were stuck with surplus crops and falling prices during the Great Depression.

The Soybean Car. Henry Ford is standing to the right.

Henry Ford is widely quoted as having remarked that “if we want the farmer to be our customer, we must find a way to be his.” In 1941, Ford exhibited the “Soybean Car,” a lightweight plastic-bodied experimental vehicle, at the Dearborn Days community festival in Dearborn, Michigan, where Henry Ford’s company was (and is) headquartered.

The body of the car was reportedly composed of soybean, wheat, hemp, flax, and ramie fibers in a phenolic resin. Some Ford vehicles were upholstered in a 25% soybean fabric, and Henry Ford would often sport a suit made from soybean fiber at media events.

The 2003 Model U

As part of its centenary celebration in 2003, Ford Motor Company exhibited the Model U concept SUV, which revisited many of Henry Ford’s early concepts. Soy products were used in the production of grease, body panels, and seat foam for the vehicle, which was powered by a modular hybrid powertrain that included a supercharged, hydrogen-fueled 2.3-liter engine.

At the time, David Wagner, Model U’s technology project manager, pointed out that “some of these concepts won’t come to fruition for years to come, but this is an important first step.”

The Model U was designed with help from Bill McDonough, who, with chemist Michael Braungart, popularized the “cradle-to-cradle” concept in the book of the same name, published in 2002. The cradle-to-cradle concept opposes the prevailing and non-sustainable cradle-to-grave manufacturing which, the book argues, is marginally delayed by even the best recycling practices.

In a cradle-to-cradle product design, which is an example of nature-inspired design often referred to as biomimicry, materials never become waste, but are nutrients that can remain in the biological cycle by either feeding healthy soil or returning to the manufacturing processes instead of moving downstream.

River Rouge plant in its heyday.

Perhaps the most famous collaboration between Ford and McDonough is the well-known redesign of the River Rouge manufacturing plant. Once the largest and most technically advanced industrial complex in the world, it employed more than 100,000 workers at its peak in the mid-1930s.

Built on the banks of the Rouge River, the facility unloaded Upper Michigan iron ore and Pennsylvania coal directly from freighters. Glass, paint, and cement factories were part of the complex, which boasted over ninety miles of railroad tracks and turned raw materials into completed cars and trucks.

But by the 1980s, the River Rouge plant was outdated and inefficient. More importantly, it had completely polluted the River Rouge watershed. Despite a decade of cleanup efforts, the river was considered to be among the nation’s most polluted waterways. Often running brown or yellow, it had reportedly caught fire several times.

In 1999, Bill Ford Jr., who was serving as the chairman of Ford’s board of directors at the time (he is now also the company’s CEO), announced a plan to transform the River Rouge complex into “a model of sustainable manufacturing,” again with help from McDonough’s Charlottesville-based architectural and environmental firm William Mcdonough+Partners.

Drought-resistant living roof composed of sedum, growing on top of the Dearborn Truck Plant final assembly building, designed to offset GHG production and reduce building energy costs.

Writing in Resurgence magazine in 2002, McDonough stated that “if I can design a building that makes more energy than it needs to operate, then I’m designing a building like a tree.” McDonough’s plans largely concern landscape design that includes over 500,000 square feet of living roof cover which can hold up to several inches of rainwater, rather than creating runoff into the Rouge River watershed, as well as specialized plants that absorb contaminants in a process called phytoremediation.

Notable as these commitments may be, they do not help customers or investors discern exactly what Ford Motor Company means when the company refers to sustainability.

Next week: Ford, part II: Defining sustainability, and measuring up.

Resources:

• Henry Ford’s Soybean Car

• Ford 2004-2005 Sustainability Report

Smart Cars for ZAP on Their Way; DaimlerChrysler Leaning toward Direct Entry

G&K Auto Conversion is completing the conversion of several hundred Smart Cars at its facility in Santa Ana, California to be purchased and distributed by ZAP. In addition, G&K will be delivering eighty-five Smart Cars owned by ZAP within the week.

G&K is in agreement with ZAP to modify the DaimlerChrysler Smart Cars for US standards and ZAP expects to deliver cars to ZAP licensed dealers shortly. The two-seater city car uses a 60hp, 698-cc 3-cylinder, rear-mounted turbo engine.

ZAP, which announced the Americanized version of the Smart car in February 2005, built up a large order backlog, but has had some issues with fulfillment. (Earlier post.)

G&K has obtained all necessary EPA and DOT certifications for model year 2005 and 2006 Smart Cars to meet US forty-five State standards. Certification for the remaining five States—California, Maine, Massachusetts, New York and Vermont—is underway.

News reports from Florida and Colorado have announced two separate business ventures claiming to be importing Smart Cars. G&K owner George Gemayel, states that G&K is the only entity approved to import and modify Smart Cars for the US market. G&K does not have a distribution agreement with the Florida or Colorado businesses.

Separately, however, DaimlerChrysler CEO Dieter Zetsche told the German newspaper Handelsblatt that the company is leaning in favor of launching the Smart minicar brand in the United States.

It is now more likely that we will decide in favor of, rather than against the US. The last word is, however, not yet spoken.

Mazda Donates 10 Prototype Tribute Hybrids to Orange County Fire Authority

The Tribute Hybrid at introduction.

Mazda North American Operations (MNAO) has donated 10 prototype Tribute Hybrid Electric Vehicles to the Orange County (California) Fire Authority (OCFA). The Tribute Hybrid is based on the technology of the Ford Escape Hybrid. (Earlier post.)

The vehicles are the first of 30 total Tribute Hybrid SUVs that Mazda will loan to fire agencies across Southern California.

The Tribute Hybrid—which Mazda unveiled at the Tokyo Auto Show in 2005—uses a Mazda 2.3-liter engine modified to run on the Atkinson cycle for superior fuel efficiency. The engine delivers output of 99kW (133hp) at 6,000rpm and maximum torque of 167Nm at 4,250 rpm.

A 70kW electric motor provides all-electric operation at speeds up to 40 km/h (25 mph), and then provides power assist to the engine when extra torque is needed. During deceleration, it charges the 330V NiMH battery.

Relative to a gasoline-only Tribute with the same engine model, the Tribute Hybrid provides 32% better fuel economy during highway operation and 74% better fuel economy during urban operation. It can cover at least 400 miles (640km) on one tank of gasoline.

The hybrid meets California’s AT-PZEV emissions standards.

The Tribute HEVs are painted in the red and white color used by regional fire authority vehicles and will be in service for two years. They will mainly be used for educational programs and fire safety and prevention programs at local schools.

The Tribute Hybrids are not yet on sale.

Although we don’t sell a Tribute HEV now, the varied driving conditions these vehicles will be put through, as well as the input on on-road performance we will receive from the fire agencies, will be valuable in the development of our first production HEV.

—Jim O’Sullivan, MNAO’s president and CEO

The Emissions and Energy Outlook for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles

Medium- and heavy-duty vehicles represent the second-largest consumer of energy in the US transportation sector, behind light-duty vehicles but ahead of every other transportation mode, according to the Energy Information Administration.

By 2030, the transportation sector’s total annual energy consumption will increase 46.5% to an estimated 39,729.9 trillion BTU (40 quads), equivalent to 7.1 billion barrels of crude oil per year, according to EIA’s long-term forecast in the Annual Energy Outlook 2006. (Earlier post.)

During that time, the share of total energy consumption of medium- and heavy-duty trucks will increase by about two percentage points—from about 17% to 19%. In contrast, the share represented by light duty vehicles will decrease by a percentage point from about 59% to 58%.

This makes trucks of particular interest for energy and emissions controls.

For the past 30 years, research and development in heavy-duty vehicles focused primarily on emissions reductions. Successful implementation of the impending 2007/2010 emissions regulations will result in extremely clean heavy-duty diesel systems, with reductions in certain emissions of about 100-fold from the 1960s, when concern about tailpipe pollutants first started to be taken seriously.

The outlook for these systems was the topic of a two-day conference organized by WestStart, the US Army National Automotive Center and the Federal Transit Agency. The general sense of the 6th Annual Clean Heavy-Duty Vehicle Conference was guardedly optimistic.

Engine makers are rolling out their 2007 diesel engine solutions, and are beginning to lock down their design and development plans for their 2010 engines. There was even a sense among a few of the speakers that the industry might be “done” with the emissions issue, and could focus on the two other strategic areas that were emphasized throughout the conference as the necessary next campaign: energy consumption and CO₂ emissions.

We are just at the starting point with respect to energy consumption and CO₂ emissions...I’m optimistic.

—Michael Walsh, international transportation consultant

Not surprisingly, the energy consumption issue is tied, longer term, to maintaining the emissions reductions currently being put in place. Under a business-as-usual scenario, energy consumption continues to grow rapidly, with the sheer number of vehicle miles travelled overtakes the reductions achieved through the 2007/2010 technologies with aggregate increases in NO_x and PM.

As a result, numerous speakers, in presentation after presentation peppered with concern over oil supply (and peaking), fuel prices and climate change, emphasized the need for more efficient heavy-duty vehicle systems, including diesel engines with optimized combustion, hybrids of various forms (hydraulic hybrids are gaining significant momentum) and alternative fuels (gaseous and synthetic).

But while the long view is important, there are still numerous issues to be resolved with actually delivering on the 2010 solutions, with the clock ticking down. These issues range from the cost of the new systems—some estimates pegged the cost of a 2010 diesel engine at twice that of a 2004 diesel—and the concomitant need for other technology approaches that might not be so costly, to driver training, and even to reconfiguring pipeline delivery to prevent sulfur contamination of Ultra Low-Sulfur Diesel.

The industry may be “done” with emissions in theory, but not in the details of operational implementation or deployment.

Background: 2007/2010. In 2001, the EPA finalized a set of regulations for future diesel fuel and heavy duty diesel on-road exhaust emissions. The fuel regulation specified the transition to 15ppm (at the rack) Ultra Low-Sulfur Diesel that is currently underway and will be in place by the end of the year.

Emissions standards were set for 2004 at 2.5g/bhp-hr NO_x+NMHC and 0.10g/bhp-hr PM. The 2010 target is 0.2g/bhp-hr for NO_x and 0.01g/bhp-hr PM—an order of magnitude reduction for both.

The PM emission standard takes full effect in the 2007 heavy-duty engine model year. The NO_x and 0.14g/bhp-hr NMHC standards will be phased in for diesel engines between 2007 and 2010 based on percent-of-sales: 50% from 2007 to 2009 and 100% in 2010.

Most engine manufacturers will likely use the NO_x phase-in provisions along with averaging to certify engines to a NO_x value roughly halfway between 2.5g/bhp-hr NOx+NMHC and the 0.2g/bhp-hr NO_x levels through 2009—i.e., approximately 1.2g/bhp-hr NO_x.

The basic 2007/2010 approach. The basic approach to meeting the 2007 emissions standards in the US is to try to reduce engine-out emissions with a number of approaches, including higher-pressure (2,000 bar) injection and improved boosting; to use Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) for NO_x reduction; to add a catalyzed diesel particulate filter with active regeneration to the system for the PM; all coupled with the use of ULSD.

The ULSD is critical to keeping the catalyzed diesel particulate filter’s operations—sulfur in the fuel can poison the catalyst. Furthermore, given the use of EGR, sulfur in the fuel can results in recirculated sulfuric acid in the exhaust, to the detriment of the engine internals.

The 2010 approach will see additional efforts on the combustion side, likely through the advent of some partial HCCI regimes; higher injection pressures (2,500 bar); more improvements on boosting; the use of variable valve actuation; and the addition of urea SCR for NO_x reduction.

With the aftertreatment that we have, the user has to become more involved when he specifies our truck...Aftertreatment requires a systems approach. It is not an add-on. It has to be considered from the beginning.

—Alan Karkkainen, Director, Future Technologies, Engine Engineering, International Truck and Engine

Alternatives. While diesel is clearly the default approach for many—especially for the long-haul highway applications—other options exist. Compressed natural gas, or hydrogen-compressed natural gas blends (HCNG) delivers an emissions—and perhaps price—benefit. Clean-burning synthetics such as GTL are another option, although given limitations on production, that would likely be in the form of blends.

Other engine approaches are possible, however. Dr. Nigel Gale from Southwest Research Institute gave a presentation on HEDGE—High Efficiency Dilute Gasoline Engine—a consortium-based approach to enabling gasoline engines to meet the performance, durability, and emissions requirements of heavy duty vehicles. (Earlier post.)

The HEDGE consortium, led by SwRI, is exploring the use of high-energy ignition coupled with more sophisticated injection and control to meet 2010 emissions requirements while meeting the power needs of the heavy-duty market.

Should it prove out, one of the benefits would be the cost. While SwRI sees the cost of diesel engines rising from $33/kW for a 2002 engine to $70/kW for a 2010 engine, the cost of a 2010 HEDGE engine would be around $37 or $38/kW. (More on HEDGE in a subsequent post.)

Energy Consumption. The average fuel consumption for heavy-duty vehicles in 2005 was approximately 5.6 mpg of gasoline equivalent for all fuels, according to the EIA. The agency sees a very slow improvement in that figure to 6.43 mpgge by 2030.

By contrast, the DOE’s More Electric Truck research program set a fuel economy target for tractor-trailer combinations of 10 mpg. The approach the DOE is encouraging is to focus on aerodynamic resistance, combustion efficiencies, reduction of parasitic loss and the reduction of idling though electrification of systems and the use of fuel-cell APUs, and thermoelectric waste heat recovery.

Improvements in fuel economy are of immediate interest to any business. The countervailing force to that urge for improvement, however, is concern over the capital cost of new equipment and an aversion to the embrace of what might prove to be risky technologies.

The market works very very well for heavy-duty trucks...market forces are aligned for improving fuel economy over time.

—Drew Kodjak, Executive Director International Council on Clean Transportation

Hybrids. Hybrids are emerging as an important factor for certain commercial—and military—applications. Just a few days before the conference, UPS announced that it was ordering 50 hybrid package delivery vans from International.

These hybrids are derived from work done by Eaton/International and Ricardo under the DOE’s Advanced Heavy Hybrid Propulsion System (AH²PS), and use a similar hybrid-electric powertrain to the one being deployed in the Hybrid Utility Truck also under development by International. (Earlier post.)

While businesses might in theory be more disposed in higher percentages to a more immediate adoption of hybrid technology than consumers (the fuel cost factor), there are a number of barriers to hybrid commercialization, according to a panel of speakers on the topic at the conference.

The barriers include:

• The high cost of components;
• The need for approved testing standards for fuel economy and emissions;
• Insufficient in-use data;
• Business case still developing (the price of fuel is not predictable);
• Rate of acceptance of new technology by customers versus the cost to manufacturers to enter a new market;
• Component supplier infrastructure and capacity; and
• Technician training

Although transit buses are a visible application for hybrids, and although the speakers from Seattle and Orange County Transit who spoke on their experiences with the hybrids were “pleased as punch,” the transit market—with 2,000 to 4,000 total new buses per year— is too small to make a significant impact on commercialization. Commercial hybrids need to rely on trucking for a substantive market.

Hydraulic hybrids are gaining significant interest for commercial application—a surprise to those who might have dismissed it as a curiosity a few years ago.

We are extremely pleased with the hydraulic technology. We believe there will be significant demand for this technology...we believe we will have hydraulic hybrids in the low 1,000s by 2010.

—Merrilyn Zaw-Mon, Director of Compliance and Innovative Strategies Division, US EPA

Eaton is targeting 20-30 vehicles this year with its Hybrid Launch Assist technology (earlier post). The company is committed to commercializing its HLA hybrids with 18–24 months. The “end game” for hydraulic hybrids, however, is a series-hybrid configuration.

In that configuration—which is what the EPA is working on in conjunction with its partners for UPS (earlier post), the engine powers a hydraulic pump rather than a motor.

Margo Oge, Director of EPA’s Office of Transportation and Air Quality, believes that the series hybrid will deliver a 70% reduction in fuel consumption in certain urban applications.

Separately, Dana and Permo-Drive are working on a hydraulic hybrid application for the military. (Earlier post.)

In the commercial market, everything is application-specific, requiring different technologies. There is no one solution that works in a commercial application because you have these application-specific requirements.

—Ed Greif, VP Intelligent Hydraulic Drive Products, Dana

Mercedes-Benz Premiers New Gasoline Direct Injection System for More Power and Lower Fuel Consumption

The direct-injection engine with aftertreatment system. Click to enlarge.

Mercedes-Benz has introduced the world’s first gasoline engine with piezoelectric direct injection and spray-guided combustion—the Stratified-Charged Gasoline Injection (CGI) engine. The spray-guided direct injection system first appeared in a mild-hybrid concept car Mercedes-Benz showed at the Frankfurt show in 2005. (Earlier post.)

The new 215 kW (292 hp) 3.5-liter six-cylinder engine will enter the market in the second half of 2006 in the CLS-Class as the CLS 350 CGI. In the European combined driving cycle, the gasoline direct injection system improves fuel consumption by 10% over the counterpart V6 gasoline engine with port injection and fully variable valve timing.

Estimated fuel consumption for the CLS 350 CGI is 9.1 liters/100km, or 26 mpg US.

In a wall-guided system, the stream of fuel hits the piston floor, forming a cloud of fuel and air that moves toward the spark plug (top). In spray-guided gasoline direct injection, a hollow cone of fuel forms at the injection nozzle. This cloud of fuel and air remains stable up until the precise moment when it needs to ignite (bottom).

The spray-guided injection achieves better fuel efficiency, and thus also higher thermodynamic efficiency, than conventional wall-guided direct injection systems. The new system will form the basis for future engine development work in this output class.

The main advantage of the CGI engine is in the stratified operating mode from which it takes its name. During this mode the engine is run with high excess air and thus excellent fuel efficiency.

Multiple injection extends this lean-burn operating mode to higher rpm and load ranges too. During each compression stroke, a series of injections takes place, spaced just fractions of a second apart. This improves mixture formation, combustion and fuel consumption.

While stratified charge operation was previously only possible in the low part-load range, the new Mercedes direct-injection engine can still operate in this lean-burn stratified mode at speeds in excess of 120 km/h (75 mph). Above this, the engine switches to homogeneous operation where the fuel/air ratio is 1:14.6 (lambda = 1).

When driving on main roads and highways at largely constant speed and with proper anticipation, the CGI engine outperforms the fuel economy of the six-cylinder engine with conventional injection technology by up to 1.5 liters per 100 km, a saving of up to 15%.

The engine also delivers 15 kW (20 hp) more power than the conventional-injection V6 and 4% more torque (365 Nm).

The CGI injection system. Click to enlarge.

Injection system. The fast-acting, high-precision piezoelectric injectors are the critical enablers to the system. The piezoelectric valves have injectors which open outwards to create an annular gap just a few microns wide. This gap shapes the fuel jet and produces a uniform, stable, hollow-cone-shaped spray pattern.

The mixture formation itself is also enhanced by turbulences at the edges and inside the cone-shaped spray; these suck air particles into the fuel spray, forming an optimally ignitable mixture.

The microsecond response times of the piezoelectric injectors provide the basis for delivering multiple injections per compression stroke, and thus for lean-burn operation. By allowing flexible and efficient control of the combustion process they play a key part in ensuring the engine’s improved fuel efficiency.

With the aid of simulations for the fuel mixture and the combustion process, the pistons have been designed with special piston bowl geometry which concentrates the lean mixture in the area around the spark plug and prevents it from spreading out towards the cylinder wall. The piston shape therefore also plays its part in ensuring near-total combustion, low fuel consumption and low emissions in the direct-injection petrol engine.

A high-pressure pump and downstream fuel rail and pressure control valve are responsible for delivering the fuel and regulating the quantity supplied. The peak fuel pressure in this system is up to 200 bar—around 50 times the fuel pressure in a conventional gasoline injection system.

The pump delivers fuel to the rails during every second injection, building up maximum pressure. As fuel is only delivered on every second injection the pressure is slightly reduced during the cycle, however the mean pressure for all injectors remains at 200 bar during injection.

A regulating valve ensures that only the fuel quantity required for the engine’s operating point is delivered, thereby reducing the po