H2
Honda Leases FCX to First Individual Customers
June 29, 2005
American Honda Motor today announced the lease of its FCX fuel cell car (earlier post) to the world’s first individual customers, the Spallino family of Redondo Beach, California.
The Spallinos, who signed a two-year lease, will drive the FCX in everyday normal use, including the work commute from Redondo Beach to Irvine (approximately 41 miles each way over the 405). Honda chose the Spallinos for the test in part because they already own a CNG-fueled Honda Civic GX and are more accustomed to dealing with a limited number of fueling stations.
The Spallinos will have access to several hydrogen fueling stations (via the California Hydrogen Highway refueling initiative), including one at Honda’s headquarters in Torrance. An additional fueling station is available at LAX, to the north of Redondo Beach.
The family will pay $500 a month to lease the FCX—considerably cheaper than the $7,300+ per month charged to its Japanese customers (earlier post). The fee includes maintenance and insurance on a car costing more than $1 million.
Honda intends to lease several more FCXs to individual customers over the next year. Currently, the automaker has a fleet of 13 FCX fuel cell vehicles in regular daily use with six public municipal customers in California, New York and Nevada.
The FCX is the only hydrogen vehicle to date to be certified by both the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and California’s Air Resources Board (CARB). The EPA certified the 2005 FCX as a Tier-2 Bin 1, and CARB certified the FCX as a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV).
The 2005 FCX model uses Honda own fuel cell stack (Honda FC Stack). The 2005 FCX carries an EPA city/highway rating of 62/51 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent and a range of 190 miles. (More specs here.)
Honda’s announcement came on the same day that GM released a survey on American’s Views of Emerging Automotive Technologies from which the company concluded, among other things, that:
...while the survey shows that Americans support the same goals that are at the heart of GM’s overall advanced technology strategy for improving efficiency [i.e., hydrogen], it’s troubling what little credit we’re getting. Clearly we’ve got our work cut out for us in communicating GM’s accomplishments and our commitment to developing advanced technologies.
Honda just widened that gap. While the leasing of the car to a private family will likely provide useful engineering and design feedback, the publicity attendant to it will further strengthen the popular perception of Honda as one of the leaders of emerging technology.
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Nanomaterials for Solar Hydrogen Production and Storage
Nanostructured materials are the basis for two research projects investigating the solar production of hydrogen and hydrogen storage.
Researchers from UC Santa Cruz, the University of Georgia and Nomadics are developing a device that integrates two kinds of solar cells—a photovoltaic cell to produce electricity and a photoelectrochemical cell to produce hydrogen from the electrolysis of water.
Both will use specially designed materials based on arrays of nanowires with uniform orientation. The main focus of the project will be on developing these nanostructured materials to optimize the efficiency of both the photovoltaic cell and the photoelectrochemical cell.
The researchers will use a technique called glancing angle deposition (GLAD) to fabricate the nanowire arrays.
Instead of requiring complex lithographic processing, GLAD uses computer-controlled substrate motion in conjunction with glancing incidence flux from physical vapour deposition to precisely tailor the structure of thin films. The geometry and porosity can be engineered to specific needs.
The goal is to produce clean energy. The idea of using solar energy and water as a source of hydrogen is very attractive, and we believe nanostructured materials can be used to do this efficiently.
We want to build a device that you can put in the sun, fill it with water, and get hydrogen without using any outside source of energy.
—Jin Zhang, professor of chemistry and biochemistry at UCSC and project lead
The hydrogen storage project, also involving UCSC and U of Georgia, with the addition of the Washington State University, will also use the GLAD technique. One solution for hydrogen storage is to store it in a solid form as a metal hydride compound. The researchers plan to find the optimum conditions for fabricating metal hydride nanostructures to achieve highly efficient hydrogen storage.
Both projects have received funding from the DOE.
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So Cal Edison Gets a DaimlerChrysler F-Cell
June 28, 2005
Southern California Edison (SCE) took possession of a hydrogen fuel cell-powered DaimlerChrysler F-Cell for operation and testing.
This F-Cell is not one of the new, higher-powered, longer-ranged B-class-based vehicles DaimlerChrysler introduced at the Geneva show in March (earlier post), but the earlier A-class-based vehicle.
The entire F-Cell fuel cell system is housed in the floor, leaving full use of the passenger and cargo spaces. It has a range of approximately 100 miles and a top speed of 85 mph. The electric motor develops 88 hp (65 kW), enabling acceleration from 0 to 60 mph in 14 seconds. The stack is developed by DaimlerChrysler’s cooperation partner, Ballard Power Systems.
The next-generation F-Cell, by contrast, develops 100 kW and has a range of some 250 miles.
The SCE F-Cell is one of more than 100 fuel cell vehicles—the largest in the world—DaimlerChrysler has put into service worldwide. The data collected through vehicle operation will contribute to the DOE Hydrogen Learning Demonstration Project.
DaimlerChrysler has invested more than $1 billion in hydrogen fuel cell technology so far.
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SOLZINC: Storing Solar Energy in Zinc for Electricity or Hydrogen Production
June 26, 2005
An international research consortium has successfully built a 300-kW pilot plant that uses solar energy to reduce zinc oxide to zinc.
The zinc can be used in zinc-air batteries or be used to produce hydrogen by reacting it with water vapor. In both cases the zinc recombines with oxygen and zinc oxide is produced, which can be reused in the solar reactor to produce zinc once more. (Click on chart at right to enlarge.)
In essence, the process stores solar energy in a transportable metal carrier that then can release the energy as electricity or hydrogen.
The consortium consists of the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI), the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETHZ), the Weizmann Institute of Science, and others. Weizmann started working on this in 1997, but it was in 2001 that funding from the EU kicked in to the SOLZINC project.
The first trials of the solar power-plant have used 30% of available solar energy and produced 45 kg of zinc an hour, exceeding projected goals. During further tests this summer the team hopes to achieve a higher efficiency. The consortium projects efficiency levels of 50%–60% for industrial-size plants.
The process uses a two-cavity reactor design. Zinc oxide (ZnO) is combined with coal, coke or carbon biomass and placed into the outer cavity—the reaction chamber. An array of heliostats reflects solar rays to a hyperbolic mirror attached to the solar production tower, which in turn reflect the rays through a secondary concentrator in the reactor.
The solar radiation heats the inner cavity, which then indirectly heats the outer cavity. The sun’s rays are concentrated on this mixture by a system of mirrors. The zinc forms as a gas which is then condensed to a powder.
Straight thermal dissociation of ZnO requires operating temperatures above 1,750ºC. (And PSI is working on a solar reactor for that as well.) However, the use of a carbonaceous material as a reducing agent (e.g., coal, coke, biomass) reduces the required operating temperature to between 1,000ºC–1,400ºC. The SOLZINC process operates at approximately 1,200ºC.
One side-effect of operating at the lower temperature with carbon as a reactant is the release of CO2. The research team determined that:
...compared to the conventional fossil-fuel-based production of Zn, the solar-driven carbothermic process can reduce CO2 emissions by a factor of 5. If biomass is used as a reducing agent, the process has basically zero net CO2 emissions, if the production rate of biomass can be matched to its use as a reducing agent.
Resources:
PSI SOLZINC project
“Solar Carbothermic Production of Zinc and Power Production Via a ZnO-Zn Cyclic Process,” Proceedings ISES 2003, Göteborg, June 14-19, 2003
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Honda Working to Lower Price on Fuel Cell Cars to Gasoline-Equivalent
June 24, 2005
Bloomberg. Honda is targeting lowering the price of its fuel-cell-operated vehicles to about the same as that of regular gasoline-engine-powered cars by 2020.
Honda is shooting for a price for its fuel cell cars between ¥3 million (US$27,500) and ¥4 million (US$36,600)— a similar price as that of its Accord sedan. Honda won’t put an exact price on the current FCX fuel-cell car, nor disclose its exact costs.
“The fuel-cell technology may never be used,” if no one is able to cut production costs by 2020, [Yozo] Kami [who leads the fuel cell project] said. It may take another 10 years from now to cut the cost of such vehicles to 10 million yen [US$92,000], he added.
Currently, Honda leases its FCX (earlier post) in Japan for ¥800,000 per month on a one year term—equivalent to some US$88,000 per year. Honda’s 19 customers for the FCX include the states of California and New York in the U.S. and the Hokkaido prefecture government in northern Japan.
“Honda’s technology is praiseworthy,” said Atsushi Kawai, an analyst at Mizuho Investors Securities Ltd. in Tokyo, who rates Honda shares “neutral.” “But it will be a long time before fuel cell cars can compete.”
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Ohio LandFill Gas Project to Produce Power, CNG, Methanol and Hydrogen
June 21, 2005
Business First. FirmGreen Energy is planning to build a landfill gas (LFG) project at the Solid Waste Authority of Central Ohio’s (SWACO) landfill in Grove City, near Columbus.
The US$18 million project—called a Green Energy Center by FGE— has three primary phases: the first, to produce power and heat with a microturbine burning LFG methane; second to convert LFG to CNG for vehicles; third to produce methanol for sale and in the production of biodiesel and hydrogen.
The core of the process is Acrion Technologies’ CO2 Wash—also being used in a prototype LFG project with Mack Trucks. (Earlier post.) FirmGreen is a licensee of the Acrion process.
Landfill gas is a natural product of the biological decomposition of organic waste. The resulting gas has a variety of chemical components, but at most sites the two principal components are methane (CH4) and CO2, with much smaller amounts of hydrogen sulfides (H2S), inerts and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
A big problem with LFG projects is the presence of trace components. Typical LFG contains heavy hydrocarbons (both aliphatic and aromatics such as benzene) as well as numerous chlorinated hydrocarbons. These trace compounds are in some cases toxic or hazardous and also cause rapid failure or engine and turbine components. There are now federal statutes which cover landfill emissions.
Acrion’s process removes contaminants from LFG using liquid carbon dioxide obtained directly from the LFG, and produces a stream of contaminant-free methane and CO2.
Contaminants are concentrated in a separate small stream of CO2 for incineration in the landfill flare.
The contaminant-free methane and CO2 stream can be used as medium BTU fuel gas, as a hydrogen source for the fuel cell or as feedstock for methanol synthesis. Further processing can separate CO2 from methane to produce pipeline methane or transportation fuel (compressed or liquefied), and liquid CO2.
(Brookhaven National Laboratory has signed a contract with Acrion to develop a process to produce marketable LNG and liquid CO2 from landfill gas.)
FGE has big plans for the GEC with the Acrion process. The planned LFG processing facilities will:
Generate up to 820 kW of electricity using Ingersoll Rand Micro-turbine technology.
Produce Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for SWACO’s landfill vehicles and local school buses.
Produce up to 6 million gallons of methanol per year for sale to Mitsubishi Gas Chemical.
Produce up to 75 tons per day of 99.9% pure liquid CO2.
Use LFG-derived methanol to produce up to 10,000,000 gallons of B100 biodiesel in conjunction with a sister biodiesel plant to be built.
Produce Hydrogen gas using Pressure Swing Absorption technology for experimental fuel cell technology development with Ohio State University.
Resources:
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Morgan at Work on the Hydrogen Fuel Cell LIFEcar
June 19, 2005
Morgan Motor Company, the UK maker of the classic Morgan car, is building a hydrogen fuel-cell car based on its Aero 8 (shown at right). Partly supported by a £1.9 million (US$3.47 million; €2.84 million) grant from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), the Morgan LIFEcar will use a fuel cell developed by Qinetiq, while BOC produces the hydrogen refuelling plant.
Morgan also reportedly plans to use ultracapacitors in its energy storage solution. The project is currently targeting a prototype in two to three years. (Times)
We accept the problems of climate change and think that it would be irresponsible for any manufacturer not to act.
—Charles Morgan, LIFEcar project director
Morgan customers might be well suited in temperament to waiting to purchasing a unique hydrogen roadster.
Morgan launched its 150-mph Aero 8 in March 2000. To date, the company has sold 300 units, and has just had its latest version approved for the US market.
The waiting list for any Morgan in the UK is presently around 12 months—the shortest delivery time since the 1970s, according to the company.
The conventional Aero 8 uses an aluminum body and chassis, and is powered by a BMW 4.4-liter V-8 delivering 333 hp (248 Nm) and 331 lb-ft (449 Nm) of torque. The Aero 8 weighs 1,145 kg, and accelerates from 0–100kph in under 4.5 seconds.
The car consumes 10.9 liters of fuel per 100km (21.6 mpg US) on a combined drive cycle, and emits 264 g CO2/km.
It will be interesting to see what sort of performance targets Morgan will use with the fuel-cell LIFEcar. More details as they come.
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Japan Clears Toyota and Honda Fuel Cell Vehicles for Wider Sale
June 17, 2005
Japan’s Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT) has given “motor vehicle type certification” to both the Toyota FCHV and the Honda FCX.
Up to now, MLIT granted certification to individual fuel cell vehicles for the purpose of testing on public roads. With new “type” certification, however, fuel cell vehicles no longer need to be cleared individually.
This thus is one step on the way to broader production and sales.
Toyota plans to begin wider leasing its FCHV 1 July. Since limited marketing of the FCHV began in Japan and the US in December 2002, 11 FCHVs have been leased in Japan and five in the US.
Honda has delivered a total of 19 FCX fuel cell vehicles to customers in the US and Japan since December 2002, when it delivered FCXs to both the Japanese Cabinet Office and the City of Los Angeles on the same day.
The company plans to begin leasing the FCX to private individuals in the US sometime this year.
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“What a Gas!”: NYT Reviews the Honda FCX
June 05, 2005
Jim Motavalli of The New York Times reviews the Honda FCX after an unsupervised week of driving.
This is a street-ready hydrogen car with license plates and no rough edges, a test bed for green technology worth well over $1 million.
[...]Given my experience with fuel-cell prototypes that were noisy, balky and incapable of going very far between refuelings, the FCX was something of a surprise. Featuring the latest generation of Honda’s own fuel cells (hundreds of them are arrayed in two multiple sets, called stacks) and a body and electric motor derived from the company’s unsuccessful EV Plus battery vehicle, the FCX felt like a real car, not a high-strung test mule.
[...] Honda hasn’t publicly disclosed its investment in hydrogen technology, but General Motors has committed more than $1 billion and produced only a handful of cars. When vehicles are hand-made by Ph.D.s as part of blue-sky research projects, can you even speculate on how much they are “worth”?
[...]At my daughters’ school, the youngsters were happy to squeeze into the back seat like college students in a phone booth. Their questions about fuel cells were simple.
“Is this the car of the future?” they asked. “Maybe,” I said.
An interesting sidenote—at least according the article, hybrid owners who encountered Motavalli and his FCX apparently asked “Do you have to plug it in?” A successful plug-in hybrid strategy will have some major PR work to do to counter the apparently automatic (and from what I can tell, unwarranted) bias against a plug-in architecture.
(A hat-tip to Robert B.!)
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BMW Hints at a Future Supercapacitor Hybrid
May 31, 2005
Edmunds.com interviews BMW’s Professor Raymond Freymann, the managing director of BMW Group Research and Technology. An aeronautical engineer by training, he has been at BMW for almost 20 years.
As the company has often said, BMW is bullish on hydrogen long-term, although not necessarily on fuel cells. Hence their emphasis on internal combustion engines fueled by hydrogen. BMW will be offering a bi-fueled (H2 and gasoline) 7 Series within two years—earlier post).
We think the future is not so radical. All of our consideration is on internal combustion engines. We’re not sure fuel cells will happen—other than as the power source for everything driven electronically, such as air conditioning, in-car entertainment, lights, etc. For this application, the fuel cell makes perfect sense. But as the power source for driving the car? That is a huge step.
Rather, we think the internal combustion engine, fuelled by liquid hydrogen is perfect. The technology exists. The internal combustion engine also offers much better power density and efficiency than fuel cells. Fuel cells have such a long way to go. I'm not sure anyone would be able to pay the bills.
Hydrogen will work best in direct-injection engines with supercharging. The thermal efficiency of a hydrogen internal combustion engine will be more than 50 percent. Gasoline engines currently operate below 40 percent and diesels just above 40 percent. The hydrogen engine will have more power and more torque. And no pollution. Initially, maybe we will make [hydrogen] from natural gas, but eventually all hydrogen will be produced using renewable energy—such as solar power.
Freymann predicts a peaking of diesel popularity in Europe as direct-injection gasoline engines gain greater presence. And he is somewhat dismissive of current hybrid designs (“two engines...simply add weight to the car, and add money to the car”).
Freymann indicated that BMW is working on a gasoline-electric hybrid, however, but using supercapacitors boosted by regenerative braking, rather than batteries.
[The super capacitors] are lighter and store less power, but unlike batteries we can use all their power—all 100 percent. An electric engine has a lot of torque at low revs—that is its main benefit—so it’s ideal for fast initial acceleration. At higher revs, once you’ve begun to accelerate, nothing can beat an internal combustion engine. Our hybrid approach combines the best characteristics of both engines.
BMW has worked on ISAD (Integrated Starter Alternator Damper)-like hybrid systems for a number of years, as chronicled in the IEA Implementing Agreement for Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Technologies and Programmes Overview Report 2000.
Resources:
IEA Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Implementing Agreement website
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Ford Product Development VP on Powertrain Futures
all4engineers runs an interesting, albeit short, interview with Richard Parry-Jones, Ford’s Executive Vice-President for product development, on Ford’s views and activities around different powertrains.
Parry-Jones touches on electric vehicles (“very, very limited”); hybrids (significant, but not taking over); hydrogen and diesel.
A few snippets:
[On Hydrogen Internal Combustion engines] A second reason is that there is no guarantee that fuel cells will work. I think they will, but I would not swear my daughter’s life on it. And hydrogen/internal combustion provides a back-up. If we get into an energy crunch, we have another way to go. It’s not as efficient as fuel cells, but it’s not a bad idea.
[On hydrogen fuel] There are no easy wins. If you reduce natural gas to create hydrogen, the cost of fuel is approximately five times higher than using oil. The cost of oil will rise to the point where that becomes viable. But longer term, to really address CO2, we need to find a sequestering technology to sequester the carbon after we liberate the hydrogen, and if we go even longer term, we have to find renewable sources of energy.The oil crunch I talk about is not just around the corner. It will be 40 years at least to work this out. But we have to find a replacement for the energy, not just the oil.
[On Diesel] I believe clean diesels can play a role in this [North American] market, not starting with passenger cars in my opinion, but coming down from pickups.
[On the 2.7-liter diesel shown in the Mercury MetaOne concept diesel hybrid (post)] No [we can’t bring that engine to North America]. There is a new regime coming along, Euro V, and probably an Euro VI after that, which have increasingly stringent levels for particulate and NOx emissions. The North American legislation, after low-sulphur fuel becomes available in 2006, is going to be Tier 2 Bin 5, which is more stringent than Euro V. Although we could sell that engine today in North America, we won't be able to keep it. We and anyone else who wants to sell in North America is going to have to invent some new technology. I tell our engineers, don't moan about it, fix it.
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Purolator Introduces Hybrids and FCV into its Fleet
May 28, 2005
Purolator Courier Ltd., Canada’s largest overnight courier company, formally introduced ten hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and one hydrogen fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicle (FC-HEV) into its Toronto curb-side delivery fleet in a large-scale pilot program. The company plans to integrate an additional 20 HEVs into its fleet in other major metropolitan areas in Canada.
Purolator took delivery of the first hybrid van in November 2004.
The company expects the HEVs to eliminate up to 50%, and the FC-HEVs up to 100%, of greenhouse gasses currently emitted with conventional gasoline/diesel delivery vehicles. If the operational results match these expectations, then Purolator intends to add up to 400 HEV vehicles to its fleet annually as it replenishes vehicles.
We are proud to be the first Canadian courier company to start the transition to hybrid electric vehicles and to introduce a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle to our fleet. With the significant reductions in fossil fuel emissions and fuel savings promised by HEVs, we believe that our customers, our employees, the environment and our company will all benefit. We know this first step will show the way and help alleviate some of the air pollution problems that can exist in a large city. It’s truly a strategic decision for us that will have a long term impact. The piloting of this green technology takes us one step closer to realizing our vision to lead the industry to a future standard of zero vehicle emissions.”
—Robert Johnson, President and CEO of Purolator
In tandem with the launch of the FC-HEV and HEVs, Purolator is developing an on-site hydrogen production, storage and refuelling/dispensing facility. Purolator’s other environmental initiatives include:
A strict no-idling policy that helps conserve fuel and reduces emissions
A route optimization program that reduces overall distances travelled by vehicles thereby minimizing fuel consumption and emissions
The Purolator FC-HEV, developed with Enova’s 120-kW electric drive system and a Hydrogenics (who also developed on the on-site hydrogen production system) 65-kW stack, is one of the first complete hydrogen fuel cell applications in a Canadian fleet environment, including everything from hydrogen generation and refuelling to the power module.
The Government of Canada invested more than $2.6 million in the fuel cell project, including $1.9 million from Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), through the Canadian Transportation Fuel Cell Alliance, and more than $770,000 from Industry Canada’s Technology Partnerships Canada (TPC), through its Hydrogen Early Adopters program.
The FC-HEV project is also one of the first in a series of strategic early deployments of Fuel Cell technology as part of the GTA (Greater Toronto Area) Hydrogen Village program. The GTA Hydrogen Village is a partnership of some 40 companies dedicated to the development of a sustainable commercial market for hydrogen and fuel cell technologies in the GTA.
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California Rolls out $54M Hydrogen Highway Plan
May 26, 2005
The California Environmental Protection Agency formally released the California Hydrogen Highway Network Blueprint Plan (CA H2 Net)—a blueprint that calls for the development of a network of hydrogen stations throughout California to help accelerate the transition to a sustainable hydrogen economy.
The first phase of the Blueprint Plan calls for development of up to 100 refueling stations and 2,000 hydrogen vehicles in the state by 2010. There are more than 40 current or planned stations throughout the state and a small number of vehicles provided by all major auto makers who are investing heavily in hydrogen vehicle technology.
The plan calls for the state to provide $53.4 million in matching funds to industry to build the 100 hydrogen fueling stations in the Bay Area, Sacramento, Los Angeles and San Diego. Because 39 already exist or are planned soon, 61 new stations, at a cost of about $1 million each, would need to be built by 2010. The funding also would provide state grants to automakers of $10,000 per vehicle.
Last year, Governor Schwarzenegger called for up to 200 stations 20 miles apart on major freeways. The planners decided that it would be best to group stations first where most people live. Accordingly, the blueprint sets a goal of 250 stations statewide linking north and south in Phase 2, which could occur by 2015.
The California legislature needs to approve the funding. Should that happen, California will take the lead among the different state initiatives.
Resources:
Volume I: Summary of Findings and Recommendations for the CA H2Net. Prepared by CalEPA, this final document summarizes the major findings and recommendations regarding implementation of the CA H2 Net, which are based upon Volume II.
Volume II: Consultant Report, Blueprint Plan for the CA H2 Net. This document contains the complete and detailed CA H2 Net Blueprint Plan, which was prepared by Tiax as the consultant and was based upon findings and recommendations from the individual Topic Team reports.
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DOE and USDA to Collaborate on Biomass-to-Hydrogen; DOE Awards $64M in Other Hydrogen Research
May 25, 2005
The Department of Energy (DOE) and Department of Agriculture (USDA) are working together to develop cost-effective technologies for hydrogen production from biomass resources.
Under the terms of a Memorandum of Understanding signed between the two agencies today, DOE and USDA experts will meet regularly to share information on technologies and activities related to reducing the cost of chemically converting biomass to hydrogen.
Some biomass sources that can be used for hydrogen production include ethanol, crop and forest residues, and dedicated energy crops such as switchgrass or willow.
A good deal of the initial focus of the partnership is on speeding the deployment of hydrogen technology in the agriculture industry and in rural communities: renewable, farm-based biomass can fuel hydrogen production; agricultural vehicles fueled by hydrogen can have the same efficiency and environmental benefits planned for light-duty cars and trucks; and hydrogen fuel cell technology can provide power for remote locations and communities.
Biomass technologies hold great promise for our rural communities and are a promising route to renewable hydrogen production.
—Secretary of Energy Samuel Bodman
Current DOE bio-hydrogen research falls into two categories:
Biological hydrogen production. Work in this area seeks to increase the efficiency of organisms that produce hydrogen as a byproduct—e.g., anaerobic fermentation systems, or photolytic hydrogen production.
Biomass-based hydrogen production. Work in this area explores improving gasification and pyrolysis technologies for low-cost biomass and wastes, and advanced reforming and shift technologies to reform hydrogen from the syngas. (I.e., similar to current Steam Methane Reforming, but using bio-mass derived syngas as the feedstock.)
Currently, there are three funded projects on biomass underway:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is working on biomass pyrolysis followed by reforming of the resulting bio-oil to hydrogen.
Iowa State University is researching indirectly heated gasification systems to convert switchgrass into hydrogen.
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is exploring aqueous phase biomass gasification.
Separately, Secretary Bodman announced the selection of more than $64 million in hydrogen research and development projects.
Novel Materials for Hydrogen Storage (17 projects, $19.8 million over three years). A broad range of research in hydrogen storage is covered by these selected projects, including complex hydrides; nanostructured and novel materials; theory, modeling, and simulation; and state-of-the-art analytical and characterization tools to develop novel storage materials and methods.
Membranes for Separation, Purification, and Ion Transport (16 projects, $12.3 million over three years). Novel membranes are needed to selectively transport atomic, molecular, or ionic hydrogen and oxygen for hydrogen production and fuel cell applications. The 16 projects selected, which include 13 universities and 3 national laboratories, address integrated nanoscale architectures; fuel cell membranes; and theory, modeling, and simulation of membranes and fuel cells.
Catalyst Design at the Nanoscale (18 projects, $15.8 million over three years). Catalysts are needed for converting solar energy to chemical energy, producing hydrogen from water or carbon-containing fuels such as coal and biomass, increasing efficiency in hydrogen storage kinetics, and producing electricity from hydrogen in fuel cells. Nanoscale catalyst designs will be explored through 18 projects involving 12 universities and 5 national laboratories. Research areas include innovative synthetic techniques; novel characterization techniques; and theory, modeling, and simulation of catalytic pathways.
Solar Hydrogen Production (13 projects, $10 million over three years). Efficient and cost-effective conversion of sunlight to hydrogen by splitting water would be a major enabling technology for a viable hydrogen economy. Hydrogen production via solar energy conversion will be studied through 13 projects at 8 universities, 1 industry company, and 3 national laboratories. The projects address nanoscale structures; organic semiconductors and other high performance materials; and theory, modeling, and simulation of photochemical processes.
Bio-inspired Materials and Processes (6 projects, $7 million over three years). Fundamental research into the molecular mechanisms underlying biological hydrogen production is the key to the ability to adapt, exploit, and extend what nature has accomplished for our own renewable energy needs. Bio-inspired materials and processes for hydrogen production will be investigated through 6 projects at 5 universities and 1 national laboratory. Research includes enzyme catalysis; bio-hybrid energy coupled systems; and theory, modeling, and nanostructure design. This clearly will be enter into the collaboration with the USDA.
Resources:
List of Selected DOE Hydrogen Research Projects
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ZAP and Apollo Demo On-Board Ammonia Reformer for Alkaline Fuel Cell Car
May 23, 2005
ZAP and its technology partner Apollo Energy Systems announced the successful demonstration of an on-board ammonia reformer—the“Ammonia Cracker”—to produce hydrogen for use in a ZAP-Apollo alkaline fuel cell (AFC)-powered vehicle.
In August 2004, ZAP announced a partnership with Apollo to develop a prototype alkaline fuel cell car based on the Smart cars that ZAP imports and modifies.
The approach is to develop an on-board reforming capability to fuel the alkaline fuel cell. (Thus the basic components of the system would be on-board ammonia storage, the on-board reformer, and the alkaline fuel cell itself.) The Smart Car prototype will use a 60 kW Apollo Fuel Cell, equipped with an 8.7 gallon ammonia fuel tank, and will have a cruising range of up to 200 miles per refueling.
Apollo’s fuel cell technology can jump start the hydrogen economy. The easiest and least expensive way to move Hydrogen from Point A to Point B is to use ammonia. Seventy-five percent of ammonia (NH3) is hydrogen. Ammonia can be added inexpensively as a component of today’s gas stations, without costly hydrogen extractors, allowing the refueling of fuel cell cars today, years ahead of other hydrogen solutions.
—Robert Aronsson, President of Apollo Energy Systems
Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and were widely used in the US space program to produce electrical energy and water onboard spacecraft. (Apollo Energy Systems has decades of experience with AFCs and a long history of fuel cell vehicle prototypes).
AFCs use a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. In the AFC, hydrogen reacts with hydroxyl ions (OH-) at the anode to produce water and electrons. The electrons flow through the external circuit to return to the cathode, where they react with oxygen to create the hydroxyl ions.
In a PEM cell, hydrogen is split at the anode, with protons traveling across the membrane to the cathode where they combine with oxygen and the electrons (which have travelled to the cathode from the anode via an external circuit) to create water.
AFCs offer a number of benefits. They are extremely efficient, and do not need to rely on the precious metal catalysts that contribute to high prices in PEM cells. AFCs operate well at room temperature, and have a good cold start capability.
However, they are easily poisoned by carbon dioxide, the presence of which in either the hydrogen or the oxygen stream leads to the formation of carbonate crystals, capable of blocking the electrolyte pathways and pores.
This vulnerability has, in the past, required that both the hydrogen and the oxygen used in the cell be purified—an expensive process. Even the small ambient amount of CO2 in the air can affect the cell’s operation.The approach that Apollo and its collaborators at the Graz University of Technology (Graz, Austria) are taking to address this is to use a simple absorbing tower (with soda lime or amines) to remove CO2 from air, and to use a recirculating electrolyte to minimize the absorption of CO2. The use of the on-board ammonia reformer for hydrogen production delivers a hydrogen stream with a consistent purity.
ZAP also has a PEM fuel cell vehicle project underway, this one with Anuvu as its partner, and is targeting production of the vehicle sometime this year. (Earlier post.)
Resources:
Overview of types of fuel cells. DOE Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program
Alkaline Fuel Cell-Battery Hybrid Systems with Ammonia or Methanol as H2 Supply
V.B.1 Alkaline Fuel Cell-Battery Hybrid Systems with Ammonia or Methanol as Hydrogen Supply (update December 2004)
Ammonia as Hydrogen Source for an Alkaline Fuel Cell–Battery Hybrid System
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Norway Funds its Hydrogen Road
May 20, 2005
Norway is allocating NOK 48.6 million (US$7.5 million, €6.0 million) for testing alternative fuels and environmentally friendly technology. Of that, 62%—NOK 30.2 million (US$4.6 million, €3.7 million)—will go to the HyNor project, which wants to build a hydrogen highway between the cities of Oslo and Stavanger.
HyNor is a Norwegian joint industry initiative to implement demonstrations of a hydrogen energy infrastructure along a route of 580 kilometers (360 miles) from Oslo to Stavanger during the years 2005 to 2008. The project will touch on the multiple steps required to develop a hydrogen infrastructure and will include demonstrations of various hydrogen production technologies and uses of hydrogen, adapted to local conditions.
Christopher Kloed from Norsk Hydro is leading the project. Some NOK 16.2 million (US$2.5 million, €2.0 million) is targeted for Hydro’s establishing a hydrogen filling station in the industrial area of Grenland in Porsgrunn. The filling station may be located in close proximity to Hydro’s research park there, and could utilize surplus hydrogen manufactured by established industry in the area.
Norsk Hydro electrolyzers were used in the first hydrogen station on Iceland, opened in 2003. The electricity used during the electrolytic process there is obtained from Iceland’s natural geothermal and hydroelectric energy sources.
Resources:
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ZESTFUL: Prototype Plug-in Fuel Cell Hybrid
May 17, 2005
UK researchers are developing a zero-emissions plug-in hybrid London Taxi powered by a large high-energy Zebra battery pack and a small 6 kW hydrogen fuel cell stack that essentially functions as a range extender.
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Prof. Nigel Schofield (Manchester University), the project leader, is presenting a paper describing the project this week at the IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference (IEMDC) in Austin, Texas.
The purpose of the project is to explore the potential for using a small fuel cell stack in conjunction with a more robust energy storage system—essentially using a plug-in hybrid architecture to downsize the fuel cell stack. This theoretically can reduce the cost and engineering issues attendant with an application that relies upon a fuel cell for primary power.
Accelerating a 2.5-tonne London taxi from a set of lights requires something like 80kW peak power. If you went to a total fuel cell solution, you would have to have 80–100kW worth of installed fuel cell on the vehicle, and the cost, mass and volume of that would not be commercially competitive, as compared to a hybrid solution.
—Prof. Schofield (The Engineer)
The project, called ZESTFUL (Zero Emission Small vehicle with Integrated High Temperature Battery and Fuel Cell), is one of the Foresight Vehicle’s supported projects within the Hybrid, Electric and Alternatively Fueled Vehicle (HEAFV) group.
The Foresight Vehicle Initiative is administered by The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders Limited (SMMT).
The prototype uses two 40 kW Zebra sodium nickel chloride (Na/NiCl2) batteries and a 6 kW PEM fuel cell stack (two 3 kW units) produced by MES-DEA in Switzerland. Ninety liters of compressed hydrogen gas at 230 bar (3,336 psi) are stored in carbon composite cylinders. The hybrid uses regenerative braking and plug-in to the grid to recharge the battery pack.
Each battery has its own associated charger which connects to 240V, 50Hz supply for overnight or downtime opportune charging.
The Zebra Z5C battery, with its ceramic electrolyte, has an operating temperature of around 300°C (572ºF)—the battery pack thus needs to be enclosed in a thermally insulated box, and is bulky. Hence, it tends to turn up applied in larger vehicles. ISE Corporation, for example, has used Zebra packs in its hybrid buses.
The team ran simulations testing six case studies: four in pure battery mode (full EV), comparing the Zebra and more common lead-acid batteries (Pb-acid), and two assessing the performance of the combined Zebra and fuel-cell hybrid.
Use of the hybrid architecture doubled the range of the standalone Zebra EV from 120 km (75 miles) to 240 km (149 miles).
The electric cab will start track testing later this year.
This project will provide some insight into the long-term viability of a plug-in architecture, and points the way to perhaps a more tractable way to phase-in the use of fuel cells.
Resources:
A H2 PEM Fuel Cell and High Energy Dense Battery Hybrid Energy Source for an Urban Electric Vehicle
Foresight Vehicle Technology Roadmap
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New Toyota Hydrogen Tanks Offer More Capacity, Longer Life
May 16, 2005
Toyota has developed two new high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks featuring greater capacity and longer operational life for its fuel cell vehicles. The tanks offer 35 megapascal (350 bar or 5,000 psi) storage and 70 megapascal (700 bar or 10,000 psi) storage.
Toyota designed the new high-pressure tanks are with an all-composite structure wrapped by a carbon fiber exterior and with an anti-leak liner made of high-strength nylon resin with superior hydrogen permeation-prevention performance.
The use of a nylon resin tank liner allows the liner to be thinner, meaning that the new 350-bar tank can hold 10% more hydrogen than the same-exterior-size 350-bar tank Toyota used before.
The extra capacity extends the cruising range of Toyota’s hydrogen fuel cell hybrid passenger vehicle from 300 km (186 miles) to 330 km (205 miles) in the Japanese test cycle.
The new 700-bar tank stores approximately 1.7 times more hydrogen than the previous 350-bar tank, resulting in a cruising range of more than 500km (311 miles) in the Japanese test cycle.
Both tanks have been certified by the High Pressure Gas Safety Institute of Japan—the 35MPa tank in April of last year and the 70MPa tank this past January. Additionally, this April, the 35MPa tank met the Institute’s new technical standard established in March for compressed hydrogen automobile fuel tanks, allowing it to be used for 15 years, compared to three years for previous tanks.
Both tanks also feature a high-pressure valve developed within the Toyota Group. This valve follows a new design that positions a solenoid shut-off valve inside the tank for increased reliability.
Although Toyota is clearly better known for its hybrid vehicle development, the company has pursued hydrogen technology as a longer-term solution in parallel. Toyota has developed all major fuel cell system components for its fuel cell vehicles itself, including the fuel cell stack.
Since 2002, 11 Toyota FCHVs have been leased in Japan and five in the U.S. Toyota is also active in applying its fuel cell technology to buses. In addition to conducting real-world verification tests with a fuel cell bus prototype operating within Tokyo’s metropolitan public bus system, Toyota currently has eight units of its FCHV-BUS transporting visitors between various venues at the EXPO 2005, Aichi, Japan. (Earlier post.)
Toyota will present technical details of the newly developed hydrogen tanks at the 2005 JSAE Annual Congress (Spring) to be held at the Pacifico Yokohama complex from May 18.
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Hydrogen Economy Decades Away
May 12, 2005
Three researchers, who contributed to the report prepared by the National Research Council and the National Academy of Engineering on the prospects for a hydrogen economy, conclude in new article that, if achievable, it will take “several decades” to overcome technical challenges standing in the way of the mass production and use of hydrogen fuel cell cars.
Energy is one of the grand challenges facing the global community. While the use of H2 as an energy carrier has been demonstrated, its wide-scale use is laden with potential technical, economic, and societal impasses. Some major obstacles to an H2 economy are: reduction in fuel cell cost by one order-of-magnitude while enhancing performance attributes; storage and transportation of H2; and evolution of a suitable infrastructure.
If successful, an H2 economy and associated infrastructure will not be realized for several decades. Because success is not certain, it will be wise to maintain a robust portfolio of energy research and development that includes programs in areas other than H2.
The article, written by Rakesh Agrawal, Purdue University’s Winthrop E. Stone Distinguished Professor of Chemical Engineering, Martin Offutt, from the National Research Council, and Michael P. Ramage, a retired executive from ExxonMobil, appears in the June issue of the AIChE Journal, the publication of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
Resources:
Hydrogen economy—an opportunity for chemical engineers?, AIChE Journal Volume 51, Issue 6, Pages 1582-1589
The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs, National Academies Press, 2004
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Air Products Selects Proton for Hydrogen Electrolysis in H2 Stations
May 09, 2005
Air Products has selected Proton, a subsidiary of Distributed Energy Systems Corp., as the preferred supplier for its electrolysis-based hydrogen energy stations.
Under the supply agreement, Proton’s HOGEN hydrogen generators, which produce hydrogen from electricity and water using its proprietary PEM water electrolysis technology, will initially be used at three previously announced Air Products fueling stations to be placed in California in 2005.
PEM water electrolysis uses electricity, a catalyst and a proton exchange membrane (PEM) to split water (H2O) into molecules of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O). PEM electrolysis is essentially the reverse of a PEM fuel cell operation, in which hydrogen is the input and water and electricity the outputs.
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California South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) recently selected Air Products for fueling stations to be placed in Burbank, Riverside and Santa Monica. Air Products and Proton have also collaborated on fueling stations to be located in Vermont (earlier post), and at a station soon to be dispensing hydrogen for bus transportation at the University of Nevada-Las Vegas.
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Nissan to Lease Fuel Cell X-Trails in US Within 2 Years
May 07, 2005
AutoWeek reports that Nissan will offer leases on limited numbers of fuel cell X-Trails (earlier post) in the United States within two years.
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Metal-Decorated Nanotubes Promising for Hydrogen Storage
May 04, 2005
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) scientists are predicting that carbon nanotubes “decorated” with titanium or other transition metals can latch on to hydrogen molecules in numbers sufficient for efficient hydrogen storage—a key enabler for long-term efforts to develop affordable hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
In the model to the right, the carbon nanotubes are represented in light blue, the titanium atoms in dark blue, and the hydrogen molecules in red.
Using established quantum physics theory, theorist Taner Yildirim and physicist Salim Ciraci, both of Turkey’s Bilkent University, found that hydrogen can amass in amounts equivalent to 8% percent of the weight of “titanium-decorated” single-walled carbon nanotubes. That’s one-third better than the 6 wt.% minimum storage-capacity requirement set by DOE for 2010. (The target is 9 wt.% for 2015.)
Equally important, the four hydrogen molecules that dock to a titanium atom are relinquished readily when heated. Such reversible desorption is another requirement for practical hydrogen storage.
Carbon nanotubes are among the promising candidates for next-generation hydrogen storage (earlier post). Achieving 6 wt.% storage, though, has been problematic. Positioning a titanium atom above the center of the hexagonally arranged carbon atoms (the repeating geometric pattern characteristic of carbon nanotubes) appears to resolve the impasse.
Yildirim and Ciraci are reporting their findings in Physical Review Letters: T. Yildirim and S. Ciraci, “Titanium-Decorated Carbon Nanotubes as a Potential High-Capacity Hydrogen Storage Medium”, Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, p. 175501 (2005).
NIST suggests that more information such as animation of the reaction paths and MD simulations can be obtained at www.ncnr.nist.gov/staff/taner/h2, but that link was not live at the time of this writing.
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Ford Puts Hydrogen Shuttles into Palm Springs Region
May 02, 2005
Ford Motor Company, the Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians and the Clean Cities Coachella Valley Region (C3VR) Coalition announced a multi-year partnership that will place at least five hydrogen-fueled E-450 shuttles in operation next year in California’s Coachella Valley.
The announcement was made in conjunction with the 11th Annual Clean Cities Conference being held in Palm Springs.
C3VR will manage the demonstration program using Ford’s V-10, H2ICE E-450 shuttles (earlier post). The Tribe may operate the vehicles, and both groups will work with the national Clean Cities program to identify additional funding sources for the fleet.
The H2ICE E-450 delivers up to 99.7% reduction in operational CO2. The shuttle seats up to 12 passengers and their luggage, including the driver, and offers a range of up to 150 miles depending on conditions and vehicle load.
Ford plans to produce up to 100 hydrogen V-10, E-450 hydrogen buses for delivery to fleet customers in 2006.
Coachella Valley is also home to SunLine Transit Agency. In 1994, SunLine became the first public transit fleet in the nation to switch entirely from diesel to CNG. Since then, the agency has been aggressively exploring other alternative fuel options—especially hydrogen.
In 2000, SunLine opened up its own hydrogen generation/storage/fueling facility—the first such built by a public transit agency. The alternative fueling depot, which is also open to the public, provides CNG, LNG, HCNG (an 80% methane/20% hydrogen mix which Sunline is testing in its buses) and hydrogen.
One of the vehicles under test by Sunline is an H2ICE series hybrid-electric bus using...the Ford V-10 hydrogen engine. In this configuration, the hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine drives the generator which produces the electricity to power the bus. (Earlier post.)
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Enova Electric Drives in Two More Fuel Cell Prototypes
April 28, 2005
Enova Systems’s 120 kW HybridPower drive systems are being used in two different fuel cell-powered ground support equipment prototypes and tests for the US Air Force.
In the first, Concurrent Technologies Corporation, which operates the Department of Defense (DoD) Fuel Cell Test and Evaluation Center (FCTec), is integrating the Enova drive system with a Hydrogenics HyPM 65 kW fuel cell system in an MB-4 aircraft tow tractor.
The MB-4 tow tractor vehicle will be tested in fuel cell demonstrations at select Air Force Bases and civil airports in the United States.
In the second project, Enova contracted with the High Technology Development Corporation (HTDC) and the Hawaii Center for Advanced Transportation Technologies (HCATT) in Hawaii to integrate and to evaluate a fuel cell hybrid step van for Hickam Air Force Base in Honolulu.
The Enova 120 kW electric drive motor delivers 650 Nm (480 lb-ft) torque.
Enova has worked with HCATT and Hickham in the past on other airport bus and electric vehicle projects. In late 2004, Enova also teamed with Hydrogenics to develop and deploy a fuel cell hybrid delivery van for Purolator Courier.
Enova Systems (formerly US Electricar) has been partnering with Hyundai for years on the research and development of all electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell drive systems. Hyundai Motors and Hyundai Heavy Industries (HHI) took equity stakes in Enova, and in 2003 the companies opened the joint Hyundai Enova Innovative Technology Center.
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Delta to Use Ford Hydrogen-Fueled Tow Tractors
Ford Motor Company, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), TUG Technologies Corporation, Delta Airlines and the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority (GOAA) announced a partnership that will put two hydrogen-fueled airport tow tractors into service at the Orlando airport.
The M1A tow tractor uses a Ford Power Products 4.2-liter, V-6 industrial engine converted and calibrated to operate on gaseous hydrogen. The naturally-aspirated H2ICE tractor will deliver approximately 80 hp (60 kW).
This engine has previously been a key power source to the airport ground support equipment (GSE) market in gasoline, natural gas and LPG configurations.
| Ford 4.2-liter V-6 Engine | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gasoline | LPG | Natural Gas | Hydrogen | |
| Power hp (kW) | 125 (93) | 114 (85) | 102 (76) | 80 (60) |
| Torque lb-ft (Nm) | 206 (279) | 201 (272) | 182 (246) | n/a |
The near-zero operational emissions from the hydrogen engine makes it attractive for airport environments, where emissions levels are strictly regulated.
Delta will put two of these TUG hydrogen tractors into service as baggage carriers at the Orlando International Airport later this summer.
Ford is also producing eight V-10, E-450 H2ICE shuttle buses for operation in the Orlando area (including the Orlando airport) upon delivery in 2006.
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Fraunhofer Fuel Cell-Flywheel Hybrid Tram
April 26, 2005
Fraunhofer Institute for Transport and Infrastructure Systems (IVI) in Germany has developed a fuel cell-flywheel hybrid trolley (tram). The fuel cell-based system is a derivative of an earlier diesel-powered hybrid version.
The two-car hydrogen AutoTram is powered by a 80kW Ballard fuel cell system and three electric motors. Roof-mounted tanks hold 10 kg of compressed hydrogen at 200 bar (2,900 psi).
The tram uses a 325 kW flywheel from CCM with a capacity of 4 kWh for energy storage, recharged through regenerative braking, power from the fuel cell or a quick plug-in at a station.
(Earlier post on flywheel hybrids here.)
With a top speed of 60km/h, the tram is optically guided and runs trackless.
Resources:
Fraunhofer AutoTram
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U of Minn Launches Wind-to-Hydrogen Project
April 23, 2005
Minnesota Gov. Tim Pawlenty and other dignitaries dedicated the only public large-scale wind research instrument in the United States designed to conduct research on converting wind power into hydrogen.
The 1.65 MW research wind turbine will sit on a 230-foot high tower. Each blade is 135 feet long. The turbine begins producing electricity when the wind speed reaches 7.8 mph at 230-feet and will reach its maximum production of 1.65 MW at wind speeds of 29 mph. Researchers at the University of Minnesota West Central Research and Outreach Center (WCROC) in Morris, the turbine’s location, estimate that based on local wind conditions, the turbine will produce 5.6 million kilowatt-hours (kWh) of power each year.
(The picture at right, from WCROC, shows the turbine in the final stages of assembly.)
The electricity presently is delivered to the nearby UMM campus, supplying some 50% of its power use, and any remaining goes to the grid. the hydrogen project will divert that surplus into electrolytic production of hydrogen.
This system will explore the use of renewable hydrogen in applications such as fuel cells and localized fertilizer production. In the future, the facility will conduct research and demonstration projects on wind energy storage and on-demand renewable energy systems such as biomass and biodiesel generation, in addition to hydrogen fuel cells.
The production of hydrogen using wind-generated electricity is projected—long term—to be one of the least expensive and cleanest options for creating the gas.
The wind-to-hydrogen project at the WCROC has received initial funding from the state Commerce Department Energy Office, the Legislative Commission on Minnesota Resources, Xcel Energy and the university’s Initiative for Renewable Energy and the Environment (IREE).
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ChevronTexaco: An Approach to Distributed Hydrogen Production
April 22, 2005
Clearly, one of the major requirements for a hydrogen-based transportation system is the production of the hydrogen itself.
At the recent Hydrogen Expo USA in Washington, ChevronTexaco Technology Ventures (CTTV) and Modine Manufacturing presented a paper outlining their development of an innovative, distributed, natural-gas-fed, smaller scale Steam Methane reformer for hydrogen production.
In principle, ChevronTexaco believes that development of an economic distributed hydrogen infrastructure is fundamental to the success of a hydrogen economy and the commercialization of fuel cells in both transport and stationary power applications.
The new compact reformer design features mechanical as well as thermal integration of the steam reforming, catalytic oxidizer, and water-gas shift reactions in a single vessel. The design is thermally neutral and requires no external cooling and no control loops, and improves the energy balance of an SMR system.
The production design target for the system is approximately 40kg of hydrogen per day—enough to service a neighborhood’s worth of hydrogen-fueled cars.
The company concludes that its design has the potential to surpass the near-term targets set by the DOE for hydrogen cost: $13.94/GJ or $1.98/kg by this year. CTTV calculations yield a total reforming cost of $12.95/GJ or $1.84/kg.
However, despite the energy and economic improvements delivered through this design, the compact reformer still operates at a negative energy balance (i.e., more energy is used in producing the hydrogen than is obtained from the hydrogen), and hydrogen costs linked to the cost of natural gas seem bound to rise steeply.
Natural gas is only a short-term option.
—Jack Johnston, ExxonMobil, GCEP presentation
CTTV used a hypothetical cost of $4.00/MMBTU of natural gas in its calculations. The spot price for natural gas at Henry Hub for the week of 13–20 April 2005 was, by contrast, $7.10/MMBTU. The industrial market hasn’t seen $4.00 natural gas since 2002.
This doesn’t reflect a problem with the CTTV design—as noted above (and as we’ll explore a bit more below), it is energy- and cost-efficient within its class. It does, however, highlight the larger problem of Steam Methane Reforming as a process with natural gas as its feedstock for the production of hydrogen.
Some quick background first.
Hydrogen is prevalent on earth, but is usually bonded to carbon or oxygen—e.g., “hydrocarbon” fuels, biomass, or water. It takes energy to break those bonds. There are a variety of processes for this, with more under development.
The US already produces 9 million tons of hydrogen per year primarily for use in ammonia production, petroleum refining, and methanol production, with steam methane reforming accounting for 95% of that production. Globally, the figure is closer to 48%.
The DOE notes that 9 million tons of hydrogen would power 20–30 million cars.
The basic Steam Methane Reforming process uses steam to heat natural gas to approximately 850ºC over a nickel catalyst bed, yielding a mixture of CO and H2O. The mixture is then cooled and catalyzed with steam again to yield pure hydrogen and CO2 (lots of CO2).
At this point, SMR is the most cost-effective process for hydrogen production. That will change, as the projection of the cost curves of select processes and feedstocks plotted to the right from Dr. Yogi Goswami at the University of Florida shows. (Click to enlarge.)
Shown on this graph is the DOE target price for hydrogen produced from natural gas in 2010: $10.56/GJ or $1.50/kg. The DOE has higher-priced targets for other processes.
Given the probable supply constraints with natural gas in the future, the cost outlook for natural gas may even shift further to the left—i.e., cost more, sooner.
There are a variety of process approaches that are being explored to reduce the energy imbalance in the production of hydrogen from natural gas, and to sequester the CO2 thereby generated. Little of that will be able to affect the cost aspect, however. That alone—should the price of natural gas continue to rise—may be enough to make this approach a non-starter in the medium- to long-term.
That also begs the question of where the 9 million tons (and rising) already spoken for in the US will come from, and how cost-effectively.
Gloom about the feedstock aside, the CTTV approach seems pretty interesting. The company’s key attributes for the reformer are:
Safe, robust and reliable
Low operating cost through improved fuel efficiency
Low capital costs through reduced system components and controls complexity
Manufacturable in high volumes
The process chemistry for small scale SMR is the same as in a large scale refine